Design as a type of production activity. Design as a type of activity and a component of social and cultural technologies. As well as other works that may interest you

Social and cultural design is a specific technology, which is a constructive, creative activity, the essence of which is to analyze problems and identify the causes of their occurrence, develop goals and objectives that characterize the desired state of an object (or area of ​​project activity), develop ways and means to achieve the goals goals. The advantages of design technology compared to other methods of targeted social and cultural changes is that it combines normative and diagnostic approaches characteristic of programming and planning. The object of sc design is a complex formation that includes two overlapping subsystems: society and culture. In this regard, the leading goals of problem-oriented design are: - creating conditions for the development of the social subject (individual, community, society as a whole), self-realization of a person in the main areas of his life by optimizing his connections with the social environment, resolving or minimizing problems that characterize unfavorable circumstances of his life activity, intensification of joint activities of people to maintain the cultural environment in a livable state, its constructive change through their own efforts; - providing favorable conditions for the self-development of cultural life by stimulating mechanisms of self-organization, meaningful combination and support of historically formed and new socio-cultural technologies, elements, phenomena. Objectives of project activities: - analysis of the situation, i.e. comprehensive diagnosis of problems and a clear definition of their source and nature; - search and development of options for solutions to the problem under consideration (at the individual and social levels) taking into account available resources and assessment of the possible consequences of the implementation of each option; - selection of the most optimal solution (i.e. socially acceptable and culturally based recommendations capable of producing the desired changes in the object area of ​​design) and its design design; - development of organizational forms for introducing the project into social practice and conditions that ensure the implementation of the project in material, technical, financial, and legal terms. The main results of sociocultural design technology are a program and a project. A program is a detailed document that studies, on the scale of a specific territory (district, city, region, federation), the entire set of conditions necessary to optimize cultural life (i.e. processes of creation, preservation, transmission and development of cultural values, norms, traditions, technologies) and includes, in addition to the analysis of the sociocultural situation and justification of the priorities of cultural development, functional and content models of institutions and organizational and managerial structures, as well as material, technical, organizational , personnel and information support for the implementation of activities, actions, ideas, initiatives planned within the program. The project can exist in two forms: a) as an integral part of the program, which is a form of concretization and content filling of priority directions for the development of the socio-cultural life of the territory; b) as an independent option for solving a local problem, addressed to a specific audience. In both the first and second cases, the project is like a local program aimed at overcoming or preventing various kinds of problems through meaningful and structural changes in the sociocultural environment and in the main spheres of an individual’s life , creating conditions for successful self-realization of a person by optimizing his lifestyle, forms and methods of his interaction with the environment. According to the content of the problems that determine the relevance of the project and the novelty of methods for solving them, projects can be typical and unique. If standard ones are reproducible in other situations with slight adjustments in accordance with local conditions (for example, projects of standard cultural institutions), then unique ones cannot be replicated due to the uniqueness of the situation and the object area of ​​​​design (for example, projects related to the restoration and use of unique architectural structures, natural landscapes, etc.). The most important structural element of design technology is research activity, since it is the designer who must, firstly, know and see the real problems of the functioning of a particular object area (for example, the culture of a region, the environment and living conditions of an individual, a social group, etc.); secondly, to have an idea of ​​​​the ideal state of the whole and how to support it. However, regardless of the radius of the project being developed, it is necessary to take into account problems at all levels, because they are all interconnected: problems of a national scale significantly affect the content and nature of a person’s life, regardless of his place of residence, regional problems can be common to most territories of Russia, and problems social groups identified in specific life circumstances can be considered as typical problems for this category of the population throughout the country.

Design is a very diverse and ambiguous field of activity, raising many questions for specialists in different fields. In this article we will look at design as a type of activity, taking into account copyrights.

In order not to return to what was written earlier, we note that design, as a type of activity, affects many participants in the process. You can read, analyze and even study some of our recommendations, which affect design from all sides, including from the point of view of the right aspect, in the Encyclopedia of Construction. In addition, the site has a special section “Design”, where all information materials are collected, from business customs in the field of design to the relationship between the parties to the contract, taking into account the current legislation of the Russian Federation.

Design as a type of activity is very important for builders, since the efficiency of the future construction project depends on the quality of the project. Construction can be capital when the creation, reconstruction or expansion of existing production, industrial, office, sports, retail, commercial and other buildings and structures occurs. Or maybe - non-capital, with smaller monetary investments, not involving various types of general construction work. As a rule, design, as a type of activity, includes a whole range of activities, as well as a package of technical and economic documentation. Therefore, the design of a particular capital or non-capital construction project is preceded by a feasibility study (feasibility study) and calculations.

Calculations are not only estimates, but also diagrams, drawings, graphic images that depict the future construction project, in accordance with the feasibility study. In addition, design as a type of activity requires documentary justification, that is, until all documents confirming the feasibility and effectiveness of the planned construction are collected, the project will not be approved.

In this connection, we will immediately consider design as a type of activity from a legal point of view. Three components are important in the design process:

• contractual relations arising between the customer and the designer, the result of which will be a material object (or material carrier) - that is, fully developed design documentation;
• author's relationship between the customer and the author of the drawings, as a result of which an intellectual object protected by copyright appears (drawing, blueprint, model, etc.);
• ownership rights to the customer of project documentation are transferred at a certain time and to a certain extent of rights. For example, if exclusive rights to documentation are not transferred, the customer will not be the legal owner of the project and will not be able to take any actions with it.

Design as a type of activity requires competent services for architectural supervision. By contacting our company, you will receive accurate calculation, economic, technical, and operational indicators for the construction of capital and non-capital facilities. Let us immediately note that the most difficult design section is considered to be the design of an industrial enterprise. In such a project, in addition to all of the above, it is necessary to establish the range of products, calculate the production capacity of an industrial enterprise, examine the construction site, determine production technology, carry out calculations of the raw material, fuel and energy base, analyze the technical equipment of the designed enterprise, taking into account economic indicators, conditions and deadlines operation of the industrial facility under construction.

You can learn about how industrial enterprises are designed on this website or from our specialists by calling 209-09-40! Call! We will find the optimal design solutions for each of your ideas!

Design is a specific technology, which is a constructive, creative activity, the essence of which is to analyze problems and identify the causes of their occurrence, develop goals and objectives that characterize the desired state of an object (or area of ​​design activity), and develop ways and means to achieve set goals. As object Sociocultural design consists of two subsystems: society and culture. The discrepancy and contradiction between the real picture and the designer’s ideal ideas about the norm is a problematic field for the formation and implementation of sociocultural projects. The project in this case is a means of preserving or recreating social phenomena and cultural characteristics. leading target orientations problem-target design are: - creating conditions for development sociocultural subject (individual, community, society as a whole), self-realization of a person in the main spheres of his life by optimizing his connections with the sociocultural environment, resolving or minimizing problems that characterize the unfavorable circumstances of his life, intensifying the joint activities of people to maintain the cultural environment in a suitable life condition, its constructive change through one’s own efforts; - providing favorable conditions for the self-development of cultural life by stimulating mechanisms of self-organization, meaningful combination and support of historically formed and new socio-cultural technologies, elements, phenomena. Objectives of project activities:- analysis of the situation, i.e. comprehensive diagnosis of problems and a clear definition of their source and nature; - search and development of solutions to the problem under consideration, taking into account available resources and assessment of the possible consequences of the implementation of each option;

On the other hand, culture (cultural activity) is condition and means of solving problems and tasks located in other planes of social and individual existence. Projects of this type, as their ultimate goal, involve the optimization of life processes (human, social group, region, etc.), and culture acts as a means and condition for such optimization. Priority design areas- these are the most significant social and personal spheres of socio-cultural life(and corresponding types of activities), characterized by a maximum concentration of problems and having the capabilities and resources to optimize human life. Revealing priority design directions are carried out mainly by situation analysis, characterizing the totality of circumstances and conditions for the functioning of society as a whole and the local situation, fixing the social, socio-demographic and socio-cultural problems of a specific territorial-administrative unit. Project audience- a carrier of socio-cultural and personal problems, i.e. a social category or group of the population, characterized by specific social and cultural characteristics and differing from other groups in the composition of conditions and life processes. During the design process, it is necessary to take into account the main parameters, characterizing the specifics of the community under consideration: - problems, the bearer of which is this community; - socio-cultural characteristics (values, morals, customs, traditions) regulating behavior and social interaction in the community; - knowledge, skills and abilities that members of the community possess and which can be used as a means of resolving a problem situation; - resources that are potentially available to members of the community and that can be used during the implementation of the project. Methods- these are ways and means of achieving goals and solving problems; means are a set of techniques and operations to achieve a goal. Within the framework of the project, methods and means are specified by a set of planned activities. Form- this is a certain ordered activity, a way of organizing the content, methods, means, performers and audience of the project. Practical activities: Practical activities can be aimed directly at solving a problem, or they can provide additional means of implementing a project. To adjust the content of the project as it progresses and to enhance public participation, public opinion polls can be planned. In addition to specialists who are proficient in design technology and engaged in design activities on a professional basis, participants in the development and implementation the substantive part of projects (especially at the stage of its implementation) can and should be: 1. Decision-making bodies in the field of culture, whose functions are related to ensuring the development of programs, projects, their approval, and control over their implementation. 2. State and non-state institutions and organizations, scientific and expert councils, capable of taking responsibility for the development, scientific justification, qualified examination of programs, projects, assessment of public initiatives in terms of the feasibility of their support. Creative associations and charitable organizations can hold special events aimed at attracting the attention of the population and the media to programs and projects (press conferences, exhibitions, concerts, auctions, mass events, etc.). 3. The public, grouped around specific programs and projects, for which participation in their implementation is a way of cultural fulfillment life, serves as a unifying and socializing factor. Public inclusion process The development, discussion and implementation of projects is also important from another point of view - it stimulates self-organization and initiative of the population, contributes to the formation of stable initiative groups and social communities at their place of residence. In order to attract and effectively participate the public, specialist consultations are required, as well as appropriate material and organizational support for initiatives. Target setting of the projects: - to preserve viable values ​​and cultural phenomena of the past, characteristic of all components of the socio-cultural environment (in the subject-spatial world, preservation, restoration and reconstruction of historical and cultural monuments, the architectural environment; in relations between people, support for traditional models adequate to modern times behavior and communication; in the cognitive-evaluative sphere - storage and introduction into cultural circulation of texts of the humanitarian culture of the past). - development and active use in the current space of life of cultural heritage (elements of the subject environment of the past, viable traditional mores, customs, rituals, etc.). Targeted support for cultural innovation within the framework of the project involves: - identifying, encouraging and replicating the best ideas and technologies for optimal existence in today’s sociocultural situation (for example, environmentally friendly ways of human existence in the environment, forms of optimal organization of spaces in settlements, samples of architectural structures, monumental, applied art, design);

Depending on the position of the designer, there are two types of project strategies: First type focused on maximum understanding and consideration of the specifics of the culture that becomes the object of project activity. In this case, the goal of the project is to create conditions that ensure the preservation (conservation) of the cultural area of ​​the region - the object of the project implementation, and only then - the self-development of the cultural subject. In the second type projects, the dominant task is to export their own cultural samples (values, norms, technologies) into a “foreign” cultural context, which is thereby modified, “artificially” transformed. The idea of ​​development underlying this type of project is determined to some extent by the awareness and understanding of the impossibility of solving problems using the resources of the culture that (or fragments of which) is the object of project activity.

Design is a specific technology, which is a constructive, creative activity, the essence of which is to analyze problems and identify the causes of their occurrence, develop goals and objectives that characterize the desired state of an object (or area of ​​design activity), and develop ways and means to achieve set goals.
As object Sociocultural design consists of two subsystems: society and culture. The discrepancy and contradiction between the real picture and the designer’s ideal ideas about the norm is a problematic field for the formation and implementation of sociocultural projects.
The project in this case is a means of preserving or recreating social phenomena and cultural characteristics.
leading target orientations problem-target design are:
- creating conditions for development sociocultural subject (individual, community, society as a whole), self-realization of a person in the main spheres of his life by optimizing his connections with the sociocultural environment, resolving or minimizing problems that characterize the unfavorable circumstances of his life, intensifying the joint activities of people to maintain the cultural environment in a suitable life condition, its constructive change through one’s own efforts;
- providing favorable conditions for the self-development of cultural life by stimulating mechanisms of self-organization, meaningful combination and support of historically formed and new socio-cultural technologies, elements, phenomena.
Objectives of project activities:
- analysis of the situation, i.e. comprehensive diagnosis of problems and a clear definition of their source and nature;
- search and development of solutions to the problem under consideration, taking into account available resources and assessment of the possible consequences of the implementation of each option;

On the other hand, culture (cultural activity) is condition and means of solving problems and tasks located in other planes of social and individual existence. Projects of this type, as their ultimate goal, involve the optimization of life processes (human, social group, region, etc.), and culture acts as a means and condition for such optimization. Priority design areas- these are the most significant social and personal spheres of socio-cultural life(and corresponding types of activities), characterized by a maximum concentration of problems and having the capabilities and resources to optimize human life.
Revealing priority design directions are carried out mainly by situation analysis, characterizing the totality of circumstances and conditions for the functioning of society as a whole and the local situation, fixing the social, socio-demographic and socio-cultural problems of a specific territorial-administrative unit.
Project audience- a carrier of socio-cultural and personal problems, i.e. a social category or group of the population, characterized by specific social and cultural characteristics and differing from other groups in the composition of conditions and life processes.
During the design process, it is necessary to take into account the main parameters, characterizing the specifics of the community under consideration:
- problems of which this community is the bearer;
- socio-cultural characteristics (values, morals, customs, traditions) regulating behavior and social interaction in the community;
- knowledge, skills and abilities that members of the community possess and which can be used as a means of resolving a problem situation;
- resources that are potentially available to members of the community and that can be used during the implementation of the project.
Methods- these are ways and means of achieving goals and solving problems; means are a set of techniques and operations to achieve a goal. Within the framework of the project, methods and means are specified by a set of planned activities.
Form- this is a certain ordered activity, a way of organizing the content, methods, means, performers and audience of the project.
Practical activities:
Practical activities can be aimed directly at solving a problem, or they can provide additional means of implementing a project. To adjust the content of the project as it progresses and to enhance public participation, public opinion polls can be planned.
In addition to specialists who are proficient in design technology and engaged in design activities on a professional basis, participants in the development and implementation The content of projects (especially at the stage of its implementation) can and should be:
1. Decision-making bodies in the field of culture, whose functions are related to ensuring the development of programs, projects, their approval, and control over their implementation.
2. State and non-state institutions and organizations, scientific and expert councils, capable of taking responsibility for the development, scientific justification, qualified examination of programs, projects, assessment of public initiatives in terms of the feasibility of their support. Creative associations and charitable organizations can hold special events aimed at attracting the attention of the population and the media to programs and projects (press conferences, exhibitions, concerts, auctions, mass events, etc.).
3. The public, grouped around specific programs and projects, for which participation in their implementation is a way of cultural fulfillment life, serves as a unifying and socializing factor. Public inclusion process The development, discussion and implementation of projects is also important from another point of view - it stimulates self-organization and initiative of the population, contributes to the formation of stable initiative groups and social communities at their place of residence. In order to attract and effectively participate the public, specialist consultations are required, as well as appropriate material and organizational support for initiatives.

Target setting of projects:
- to preserve viable values ​​and cultural phenomena of the past, characteristic of all components of the sociocultural environment (in the subject-spatial world, preservation, restoration and reconstruction of historical and cultural monuments, the architectural environment; in relations between people, support for traditional patterns of behavior and communication adequate to modern times; in the cognitive-evaluative sphere - storage and introduction into cultural circulation of texts of the humanitarian culture of the past).
- development and active use in the actual space of life of cultural heritage (elements of the subject environment of the past, viable traditional mores, customs, rituals, etc.).
Targeted support for cultural innovation within the project involves:
- identification, encouragement and replication of the best ideas and technologies for optimal existence in today’s sociocultural situation (for example, environmentally friendly ways of human existence in the environment, forms of optimal organization of spaces in settlements, samples of architectural structures, monumental, applied art, design);

Depending on the position of the designer, there are two types of project strategies:

First type focused on maximum understanding and consideration of the specifics of the culture that becomes the object of project activity. In this case, the goal of the project is to create conditions that ensure the preservation (conservation) of the cultural area of ​​the region - the object of the project implementation, and only then - the self-development of the cultural subject.
In the second type projects, the dominant task is to export their own cultural samples (values, norms, technologies) into a “foreign” cultural context, which is thereby modified, “artificially” transformed. The idea of ​​development underlying this type of project is determined to some extent by the awareness and understanding of the impossibility of solving problems using the resources of the culture that (or fragments of which) is the object of project activity.

In particular, jobs must be designed to match both the abilities of the people occupying the positions and their motivations. Therefore, industrial psychologists tend to choose one of two fundamentals. approaches to designing work activities. The first approach is motivational. Recently, in the field of motivation, great importance has been attached to changing jobs so that they allow workers to better control the results of their work, increase autonomy, improve feedback and provide the opportunity to be passionate about their work. Such a t.zr. lies at the heart of an area of ​​activity called job enrichment ( job enrichment).

The second approach focuses on individual abilities and comes down to designing work tasks in different types of professional activities so that they match as closely as possible the abilities of the people engaged in these types of activities. This field is called human engineering. factors, or ergonomics. The applied discipline called human factors has been heavily influenced by research. people's information processing abilities And capabilities of technical devices with t.zr. interactions between people and computers, as well as technical advances in the field of robotics.

See also Study of opinions and attitudes of personnel towards working conditions, Human factors, Professional analysis, Morale in organizations, Personnel assessment

D. R. Ilgen

Industrial Clinical Psychologist ( occupational clinical psychologist)

A specialist who deals with psychological problems. adapt. of people in the workplace is a psychologist who, acting as an external consultant or in-house professional, addresses the well-being of workers and the organization through programs and services provided at the expense of a sponsor such as an employer or union.

P.K.P., as a rule, has a doctoral degree obtained as a result of completing an accredited program, the necessary practical experience. working with a busy population under the guidance of an experienced specialist specializing in mental health problems. health facility and meets state licensing requirements. Qualified in the use of psychol. principles in working with mental problems. health of both workers and employers, this psychologist has been trained in diagnostic and assessment techniques; methods of counseling and psychotherapy, especially its short forms; crisis intervention; working with stress; management and organizational consulting; methods of strengthening labor discipline, as well as developed. and evaluation accordingly. programs. Such professionals must have practical experience. Knowledge of federal, state, and municipal regulations, testing and privacy laws, and laws affecting the employment of women, ethnic minorities, and the elderly.

See also Industrial Consultants, Industrial Clinical Psychology

X. V. Schmitz

Propaganda ( propaganda)

P. is the promotion of a position or idea in a manner that reflects an attempt to impose rather than to provide a balanced overall view of it. P. can be contrasted with education, the purpose of which is the transfer of knowledge.

The first attempt at a systematic analysis of wartime history was made by G. D. Lasswell. He examined the success of each of the belligerents in achieving four goals: a) demoralizing the enemy; b) increasing hatred of the enemy; c) maintaining friendly relations with neutral states and d) the possibility of achieving cooperation with neutral states.

In other countries, the term "P." was used completely openly and without an accompanying negative evaluative connotation. Thus, the notorious J. Goebbels was the Reich Minister of Public Education and Public Education in Hitler's Germany. The United States usually called its agencies, which performed similar functions, “information” agencies and “communications” agencies. In the United States, the term P. has acquired a negative evaluative connotation since the 1930s, when it became associated with the efforts of Germany and Italy to achieve a favorable attitude towards the new political system of their states.

In military warfare, which aims to undermine the morale of the enemy, the target is a potentially wavering person who still continues to fight, but has already lost his fighting enthusiasm. It is unrealistic to expect such people to give up their weapons and surrender on the basis of P. alone, but they can be encouraged to allow themselves to be captured if appropriate. coincidence of circumstances.

One of the ways to study P. includes the analysis of appeals to fear in the process of persuasion. The dependent variables studied were such consequences as the intention to use seat belts and receive the corresponding. injections to prevent the disease. Despite the lack of complete consistency in the results, a general trend towards a positive relationship has been established between the intensity of the fear drive and the degree of change in attitude as a result of P.

It is possible that susceptibility to influence or persuasion by means of P. and other persuasive communications belongs to the class of general features, however, research. research on this topic has led to only modest progress in identifying its correlates. P. turns out to be most effective in working with people who are already favorably disposed towards the views she promotes. If they are not in a favorable mood, they may avoid its exposure (not listening to the program, not paying attention to the posters, etc.). If they are not in a favorable mood, but are still exposed to it, they may not perceive the message, not relating it to themselves or distorting its semantic structure. For this reason, propaganda efforts can begin with pre-preparing audiences to receive the message and react favorably to it. This process involves appeals to the importance of the issue at hand.

Marketing of goods or services, public relations and advertising activities are one of the forms of advertising, since they are often not interested in conveying the whole truth to consumers, but in selective dosing of information. in order to stimulate sales growth.

See also Attitudes, Communication Theory, Persuasive Communications, Social Influence

Ch. Vinik

Prosocial behavior ( prosocial behavior)

P.P. consists of reactions that do not entail obvious benefits for the respondent, but are beneficial to the recipient. Both internal and external mechanisms have been proposed as hypothetical determinants of P. p. As individuals mature and develop, they improve their understanding, better anticipate the consequences of their actions and actions, and learn to navigate and act on the basis of general moral principles. With an emphasis on external factors, researchers' attention was focused on the situational determinants of P. p. Two main. theoretical approaches to understanding P. p. emphasized the importance of the situation or environment: attempts to explain, based on reinforcement theory, why people sometimes help others, and cognitive analysis of the way perceptions and value judgments influence behavior. From view According to some representatives of learning theory, prosocial reactions arise because they were rewarded in the past. Along with past experiences, individuals are also influenced by their expectations regarding future rewards or punishments.

It was found that the factors influencing P. p. include such external determinants as the presence of random witnesses. The presence of more than one witness in an emergency situation tends to inhibit the reactions of each person present. Such suppression of the witness's reactions appears to be a consequence of the uncertainty of the attitude of those present to the situation itself. People react less when circumstances are uncertain, when they are in an unfamiliar environment, and when they are uncertain about behavioral norms in a particular environment.

Internal factors influencing P. p. include such variables as a person’s mood. The likelihood of helping behavior increases when individuals are in a good mood. PPP varies as a function of the relative balance of perceived costs and rewards.

See also Altruism, Bystander Intervention, Cooperation/Competition, Development of Human Social Behavior, Social Climate Research

C. G. Huber

Vocational analysis ( job analysis)

Developed research and psychology programs in organizations often require knowledge of various aspects of the work performed by people. The process by which this knowledge is acquired is called. P. a., while the report on the results of such an analysis is called. professionogram ( job description). Sometimes these terms are used interchangeably.

The work is analyzed primarily in order to answer two types of questions: a) what operations are performed during the work process; b) what resources are needed for this. Answers to the first question may describe work results or achievements, tasks or responsibilities, work methods and procedures, and other work-related activities that are typical for all people performing this work. A comprehensive study of the work can also provide information. about various deviations in the implementation of recommended procedures or about possible, but usually not taken into account or even undesirable consequences of k.-l. production actions. The answers to the second question can describe the physical. resources (e.g. tools, equipment or materials), social. or organizational resources (eg, relationships between managers or colleagues and personnel management) or the employee's personal resources (eg, skills, knowledge, abilities or other personal characteristics necessary to effectively perform the job).

Professionograms serve as the basis for many. types of research and planning practical programs. Examples of their use can be found in the design of work activities ( job design),developed vocational training programs, career counseling, employee performance assessment and determination of professional knowledge and skills or k.-l. more abstract constructs assessed during personnel selection.

There are many different methods of PA, but most of them can be classified into five categories.

Self-reports. Basic - often the only source of information. about the work I am a full-time performer; Some professiograms are nothing more than a report from the performer, basically. partly on an introspective look at what he has to do.

Direct observation. Certain types of work can be studied by observing how full-time employees perform their work. In this case, aids such as video cameras or stopwatches can be used, and the observations themselves can be carried out according to a predetermined time schedule. This method is informative for those types of work that consist of easily observable physical. operations and short work cycles, but it is not very suitable for work that has a premium. cognitive nature.

Documentation research. Police reports contain reports of incidents they recorded (accidents, accidents, etc.). Complaint logs may contain useful information. about the work of both law enforcement officers and representatives of other professions related to the provision of various types of services. Memos can report on some unusual but important events and achievements. Honey. reports may indicate sources of hazard to human health and life in the work environment or work practices. Previously compiled Professionograms may also exist.

Interview. Full-time employees, their supervisors, and other employees with related functions may be interviewed individually or in groups in order to identify broad categories of job characteristics and specific details within these categories. Interviews in the early stages of analysis may be open and unstructured; if the analysis covers several different types of work, standardized interview forms may be required.

J. Flanagan developer a special approach that has proven itself well in groups. interview. Workers or others may be asked to identify and describe critical incidents - examples of particularly effective or ineffective performance of work. This description includes the chain of events leading to the critical incident and its consequences. By analyzing a collection of critical incidents, much can be learned about the sources of hazards, the factors influencing people's judgment, or the personal characteristics associated with job performance. This technique is especially good for those types of work where many. important aspects of professional activity are hidden from outside observers.

Survey methods. When you need to analyze many types of work or when people having the same profession perform different versions of the basic. work, questionnaires or questionnaires can be used to collect information usually obtained through other methods. Developed the questionnaire may require observations or interviews; if it is intended for widespread and frequent use, it is often tested on a small sample and modified as necessary before conducting full-scale surveys.

See also Applied research, Industrial psychology, Employee performance assessment for wage setting

R. M. Guyon

Professional adaptation ( occupational adjustment)

P. a. - a complex and lengthy process that begins from the time of entry into work and continues throughout life. Appl. psychologists study employee motivation and needs in connection with job satisfaction and examine the influence of various individual and organizational characteristics on his work activity.

Theories of P. a. To explain the process of P. a. A number of theories have been put forward. The theorist in the field of professional development, D. Super, and his colleagues identify 3 stages in the process of P. a. (definition, maintenance and decline). Super described the developmental tasks that are solved by the individual at each stage. Basic the task of the initial phase, or career determination phase, is to realize professional preferences and recognize the need to achieve stability in a professional career. In the next phase, the individual either actually acquires a permanent job or is forced to accept more or less permanent instability. Finally, the individual becomes established and progresses in his chosen professional career. Dr. stages were proposed by Miller and Form (trial period, stable period, and retirement period) and R. Havighurst (establishment, maintenance and reflection [review]).

Problems or styles of adaptation to work were also studied. Neff identified 5 types of disorders, or pathologies of labor adaptation, including low work motivation, fear or anxiety in response to demands for work productivity, hostility and aggression, dependence and social. naivety. Finally, Holland and Shane showed how the interaction of individual traits and environmental characteristics cause P. a. and professional growth.

A thorough and empirically substantiated theory of P. a. was outlined by Lofquist and Davis in their work Adaptation to Work ( Adjustment to work). According to this theory, the professional environment develops a variety of reinforcement patterns that interact with the needs and abilities of the individual. Conformity, or harmony, between an individual and his work environment will lead to satisfaction and satisfaction and, as a consequence, to a certain level of permanence or job stability. Satisfaction and satisfaction are complementary results of adaptation to work.

Thus, individual and environmental factors contribute to adaptation to work. In accordance with this theory, psychol. questionnaires to measure individual needs (Minnesota Importance Questionnaire, Minnesota Importance Questionnaire[MIQ]) and descriptions of patterns of professional reinforcing stimuli for various professions were compiled.

Warr and Wall talk about the existence of a close connection between the general mental. health and adaptation to work. These authors agree that meeting individual needs at work is essential for self-esteem and, therefore, for overall health. In general, the results of the study. confirm the existence of a connection between general and P. a. Crites points out that this relationship is complex and appears to depend on individual and organizational mediating variables.

Interventions to facilitate vocational adaptation. The industry used therapeutic and preventive programs to promote P. a. and mental employee health, including, but not limited to, improvements in selection and training procedures. In research It was found that balanced (positive and negative) information. about the upcoming job provided to the candidate led to more realistic expectations and reduced the number of layoffs.

Dr. The programs were designed to train managers to become more effective leaders in the development of workers' professional careers. In addition, the organization of consultation centers and employee assistance centers has become increasingly popular in business, industry and government. institutions. These and other similar programs increase the ability of the employee and the organization to cope with the problems of P. a.

See also Professional career development, Industrial psychology, Job satisfaction

A. R. Spokane

Vocational rehabilitation ( vocational rehabilitation)

According to Richard Burke, the first Ordinance on P. r. (State Act 236) in the United States was passed by Congress on June 2, 1920. This regulation placed special emphasis on the professions and defined rehabilitation as “efforts to render a disabled person capable of engaging in gainful occupation.”

Theoretically, the P. r. program should be addressed to people with limited legal capacity, giving them the opportunity to choose. It should be different from similar events, the purpose of which is primary training, such as career guidance, vocational training and advanced training. However, in practice, many people with disabilities choose from available resources to meet their personal needs, often without taking into account either such official definitions or professional recommendations.

Individual practice distorts statistical trends and undermines the accuracy of the definition. However, there are certain reasons behind it. It reflects practice. considerations. Person may prefer one program over another due to the proximity of the place of study. Dr. cause m.b. feeling of shame associated with P. r. and incapacity that forced people. go through it. Olshansky suggests that a disabled person often suffers from a feeling of shame, not in any one form, but from many of its varieties associated with external physical factors. shortcomings, stereotypical ideas about people receiving social services. help, and even with attitudes regarding race, skin color or religious beliefs. While advances in medicine and science continue to contribute to an increase in life expectancy, the need for PR aimed at improving the quality of a longer life for people with disabilities will continue to grow.

S. Berent

Professional ethics ( professional ethics)

Ethics is a set of norms that regulate personal and professional behavior and development. in most cases, to protect consumers of services, specialists, organizations, research participants, professional groups and society as a whole.

You can organize ethical standards around people. or groups, in relation to which the responsibility of a specialist arises, or around broad classifications. principles. In any case, norms tend to be general guidelines for making decisions about ethical actions both before and after they occur, rather than a set of rules for all possible professional situations. When ethical standards are developed by professional organizations, then adherence to these standards becomes one of the conditions for belonging to these organizations. In such cases, norms become the basis for formal review of suspected unethical behavior.

Systems of ethical principles basic. on the goals, objectives and fundamental values ​​of specific professions. Not as powerful as civil or criminal law, they can still serve as a guideline for development. legislation or to determine in civil proceedings whether accepted standards of practice have been violated. Ethical principles are usually revised periodically to reflect the development of the profession, changes in the norms of society as a whole, or the results of court decisions.

The first area, “responsibility,” emphasizes that psychologists must be extremely sensitive to the potential outcome of their professional actions.

The principle of “competence” emphasizes that psychologists should engage in professional activities only in those areas in which they undoubtedly have knowledge, skills, training and experience.

The principle of “moral and legal norms” requires psychologists to know the norms of behavior that exist in society and to use this information. when developed own systems of personal and professional values ​​and behavior.

The principle governing “self-presentation” determines the ways in which an organization or specialists provide information about their professional qualifications, participation in professional communities and their functions.

The principle of “confidentiality” is an integral part of effective psychol. practices. Information provided to a psychologist in the context of a professional relationship should in no way be passed on to other persons in any form without the consent of the person concerned, unless there is an obvious danger to anyone else.

In order to protect the rights of those who resort to psychol. services, developer principle relating to "consumer welfare".

The principle concerning “professional relationships” draws attention to the obligations of psychologists when interacting with other professionals. Psychologists are expected to take into account the needs and skills of other professionals and ensure that they provide the best possible service to clients.

The principle governing the use of “assessment techniques” requires psychologists to adhere to the standards relating to these techniques in order to ensure their reliability and prevent misuse.

The principle regarding “conducting research. with the participation of people,” is so complex that it deserves a separate large publication. There may be an insurmountable ethical conflict related to the fact that the value of the research must be weighed on one side of the scale, and any potential risk to participants must be weighed on the other.

The final principle covers the “care and treatment of animals.” When using animals for research purposes. care must be taken to treat them humanely and to comply with applicable laws.

These ethical sections illustrate the types of problems that psychologists and other specialists face. Clearly, the focus is on protecting those with whom psychologists work. This also helps to protect psychologists themselves by providing a framework within which work is carried out and by providing support to other colleagues. In addition, such attention protects against interference by non-professionals.

In development There are several ethical standards and adherence to them. important problems. One of them is the strong difference in methods of working with clients, and many more. of them do not have clear standards for application. Further, the behavior of those who seek psychol. help is often in conflict with social services. expectations, and the psychologist is responsible for both sides. The third problem is the integration of the goals and values ​​of the profession with the goals and values ​​of the society in the form in which they are described in the legislation. Another problem is the work of psychologists in non-psychological environments (eg business) with different organizational standards. This is only a small part of the variety of problems associated with development. clear ethical guidelines.

There are certain groups of clients in whom it is especially difficult for psychologists to make judgments about the ethicality of practice. Persons suffering from mental disorders constitute one of these groups due to their inability to independently make effective decisions, which places additional burden on the psychologist.

The second group that requires a special ethical approach is children due to their insufficient self-protection skills. Children's rights are particularly vulnerable to violence because these rights are limited by law.

In family therapy, unusual difficulties arise. Confidentiality is difficult to maintain when therapists communicate with other family members outside of therapy sessions, and this communication, even if beneficial, must remain confidential.

Special ethical problems arise in therapeutic groups because their members are bound only by their own moral standards and not by formal ethical or legal norms. As a result, group members may potentially harm other members or be unable to maintain confidentiality.

Another group of problems concerns ethical issues related to clients whose care is paid by insurance companies. If a psychologist accepts payment from an insurance company, he must provide it with certain information. about the client (e.g. diagnosis, rationale for the need for therapy, number of sessions). Therefore, such information will no longer be confidential.

It is obvious that these ethical principles do not solve all the problems that psychologists face. Exceptions to typical situations of ethical judgment occur as changes in psychology occur. theory and practice. Social integration and professional values ​​with legal. requirements is a continuous process.

Consequently, ethical principles are not a set set of rules, but rather guiding lines, following which every psychologist must, however, continuously make decisions for the benefit of all interested parties.

See also Confidential Communications Protected by Witness Privilege, Professional Advice

T. S. Bennett

Professional counseling ( occupational counseling)

P.K. is best differentiated from other similar forms of assistance in the field of professions and careers (for example, career counseling, career counseling, career guidance) in terms of its goals and content. Counseling focuses on preparing clients for entry into a profession and subsequent career steps, along with the traditional emphasis on vocational choices found in other related forms of counseling. In addition, professional consultants work with clients at all levels of the occupational structure (eg skilled workers). Employment and subsequent support of the client are, therefore, important additional functions of a consultant in P.K.

P.K.'s task is to help people. formulate your professional goals, determine the area of ​​possible professions that are consistent with these goals, and implement your choice in the conditions of the actual market situation. Job search as a consulting task and the use of information. about the profession as a counseling tool distinguish P.K. from its more choice-oriented analogues.

P.K. has its roots in the socialist movement. reforms of the late 1800s. Frank Parsons is considered its formal founder. Parsons described a three-step process in which the client learns about himself and his professions and then combines both in the process of “making a balanced decision.”

Professional consultants work in a variety of structures and organizations, including schools, social services. rehabilitation of convicted criminals, counseling centers, career planning centers, the Department of Veterans Affairs ( Veterans Administration), state employment bureaus, public associations and, increasingly, in executive authorities, business and industrial production.

Related information.