Various types of order systems. Tuscan art in the Middle Ages Tuscan order in the architecture of ancient Rome

The construction of orders in masses is a simplified image of them, in which small details are excluded, and all curved lines are conditionally replaced by straight ones (Fig. 2, 3).

Due to the fact that the basic proportions of the composite order are the same as the Corinthian, and in terms of the richness of decoration and originality it differs little from the Ionic and Corinthian, four orders are subject to detailed analysis - Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian (Fig. 1).

All parts of the order have certain sizes, which are in strict mutual relation. Architects have been searching for the correct relationship between the height of a column and an entablature for many centuries. By studying these dimensions from surviving ancient buildings, the Renaissance theorist Vignola derived some average simple ratios that have become generally accepted.

According to Vignola, the height of the entablature is 1/4, and the height of the pedestal is 1/3 of the height of the column. Therefore, to determine the main parts of the order, it is necessary to divide its entire height into 3 unequal parts, proportional to 1/4:1:1/3 or 3:12:4 (bringing the fractions to a common denominator). Adding these parts, we get 19, i.e. dividing the entire height into 19 parts, 3 upper parts are separated into entablature; 12 middle parts – on the column and 4 lower ones - on pedestal.

Let us consider separately each part included in the order. When comparing those presented in table. 1 of the four orders in the masses it is clear that the Tuscan column differs from other types of columns in its greater massiveness and heaviness of proportions. Its thickness is equal to 1/7 of the height. The thickness of the Doric column is slightly smaller and equal to 1/8 of the height, the Ionic - 1/9, the Corinthian - 1/10.

Since all parts of the order depend on one another in their sizes, there is no place for absolute values ​​such as meter, centimeter.

In each individual case, any part of the order must be taken as a unit of measure. The lower radius of the column was considered such a part and this measure was called MODULE. To display the small details of the order, the module is divided into parts called PARTS; in the Tuscan and Doric orders there are 12, and in the Ionic and Corinthian orders there are 18 parts.

Having understood what a module is and using the data in Table 1, which shows the sizes of the main parts of the order in modules, you can continue building orders in masses.

Table 1

Construction of architectural orders among the masses

The column is a round pillar, somewhat thinning at the top.

This thinning is 1/6 of the lower thickness of the column and usually begins with one third of its height, while the lower third of the column is made cylindrical. Thus, the upper diameter of the column is 5/6 of the lower diameter. When drawing a column on a small scale, the thinning part is shown with slightly slanted lines. On a significant scale, thinning is done along a smooth curve called ENTHASIS.

Having outlined the main middle part of the column, called the ROD or TRUNK, you can move on to building its lower part - the BASE, and then the upper part - the CAPITAL.

Height bases for all orders is equal to one module. The base consists of two parts: the lower part - a square plate - PLINT - makes up the base of the base; the upper part is a RING, round in plan, the transition from the column rod to the plinth (Fig. 2).

In the Tuscan and Doric orders, the ring and plinth are equal in size and the ring in the masses is depicted by an inclined line, expanding downwards at an angle of 45 °, In the Ionic and Corinthian orders, the ring is 2/3 of the height of the base and its downward expansion is shown at an angle of 60°.

The top part of the column is called the CAPITAL.

The height of the capitals of the Tuscan and Doric orders, like bases, is equal to one module. The capital consists of three parts of equal width. The upper part is a square plate – ABAKA; middle – round in plan in the form of a half-shaft – EKHIN; the lower one is a continuation of the column rod - NECK. Dividing the height of the capital into three equal parts, the neck should be considered as a continuation of the column rod; Echinus is shown as an oblique line, widening upward at an angle of 45°; The abacus is depicted by a vertical line directly from the inclined echinus.

The capital of the Ionic order has special spiral curls - VOLUTES and is very different from other capitals. It has an abacus and a shaft, no neck, and the height of the capital is 2/3 of the module. Its construction among the masses is carried out as follows. The total size of the capital is set aside - 2/3 of the module, and then the abacus - 1/6 of the module. On the bottom line of the capital - at a distance of I module from the axis of the column - there are centers of volutes. Conventionally, volutes are depicted as a rectangle. In this case, the values ​​for the distance of the sides of the rectangle from the center of the volute are observed: vertically up - 9 desks, down - 7 desks; horizontally further from the axis of the column - 8 desks, closer to the axis - 6 desks. With a very small modulus, it is permissible to depict volutes in the shape of a square with a side equal to one modulus (Fig. 4a).

The height of the Corinthian capital is 2 and 1/3 modules; 1/3 of the module falls on the abacus and 2 modules on the rest of the capital, which has a complex treatment in the form of two rows of leaves and curls growing from them. The width of the abacus is three modules. After laying 11/2 modules to one side and the other from the axis from the fixed points, the columns are inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis until they intersect with the bottom line of the abacus, and then continue until they connect with the top of the column trunk (Fig. 4,b) .

Fig.4 Capitals in masses: a) ionic; b) Corinthian

Moving on to the construction of the entablature, it is necessary to remember the RULE OF HANGING, which consists in the fact that the upper parts of the architectural elements should not be wider than the lower ones, i.e. on any image of a corner column, the vertical line of the entablature angle must correspond to the continuation of the outline of the column trunk. Those architectural parts that, for special reasons, have extensions at the top should not bear any load (overhanging part of the cornice).

The entablature consists of three parts: ARCHITRASP, FRIEZE AND CARNICE.

The architrave is the first significant part of the entablature, which consists of horizontal beams that cover the space between the columns. In the first two orders, the architraves have a very simple shape and their size is equal to 1 module. In the Ionic order, this form is divided into three stripes and ends with a profile at the top. The height of the architrave has been increased accordingly – up to 1 and 1/4 modules.

In the Corinthian order, the architrave was further developed and has a height of 1 and 1/2 modules. Considering that in all orders there are protruding elements in the upper part of the architrave, conventionally, when depicting this part of the order in masses, the architrave line slightly expands upward. Above the architrave is the middle part of the entablature - the frieze. For all four orders, the frieze is shown by a vertical line coinciding with the line of continuation of the column trunk. The size of the frieze is carried out according to the data given in Table 1.

Above the frieze is the upper part of the entablature - the cornice.

This is one of the most important architectural forms, having an expansion at the top, which is explained by the special purpose of the cornice of the order or building. If the wall of the building ended smoothly at the top, without any protruding parts, and the roof did not directly begin, then dust, along with atmospheric moisture, would flow from the roof along the walls of the building. To avoid this, stone slabs are laid at the top of the wall, protruding forward from the plane of the walls, and the roof begins from these slabs. Such protruding stone slabs constitute the HANGING PART OF THE CORNICE (Fig. 5). Thanks to the hanging eaves slabs, water from the roof flows down the outer vertical plane of these slabs, at some distance from the wall. However, due to the properties of water, some of the liquid blown by the wind may fall on the wall. To prevent this from happening, a depression is made in the lower surface of the hanging stone slab. Drops of water, having reached the recess in the slab, cannot rise up and drip down like tears. This similarity was the reason for giving the groove in the stone the name TEARCHER, and the stone itself being called the TEARSTONE.

Fig.5 Elements of cornice

The desire to push this overhanging part forward as much as possible and provide it with balance led to a device for widening the wall under the tear stones, which was called the SUPPORTING PART OF THE CARNICE.

To protect the outer surface of the teardrop stone, brightly illuminated by the sun, from water leaks, the part of the roof located directly on the teardrop is made in the form of an artistically processed gutter. This part of the cornice is called the CROWNING part. It is usually decorated with lion heads and ornaments.

Thus, the cornice consists of three parts: supporting, protruding and crowning. The size of each part of the cornice is indicated in the table. When constructed in masses, the projection of the cornice is conventionally assumed to be equal to its width, so that the most protruding point is determined by drawing an inclined line at an angle of 45° from the bottom of the cornice. The middle part of the cornice projects forward, having an overhang in the form of a horizontal straight line, constituting the lower part of the tear stone.

The depiction of pedestals is not difficult and is not described in detail. You just need to remember that the bases are very important structural parts of the order and the width of the pedestal should be equal to the width of the lower part of the column base.

Having studied all four orders in their main features or in masses, further study of them should follow the path of considering individual details.

Tuscan order, one of the five Roman architectural orders. The name is associated with Etruscan (Tuscan) architecture. It is not present in the Greek system of orders, although it is similar to the Greek Doric order, which is simpler in detail, with which it is similar in shape and proportions.

The frieze of the Tuscan order is devoid of triglyphs and metopes. There are no mutulas under the eaves extension slab.

The column trunks, which are thicker than Doric ones, are smooth and without flutes. Extremely simple bases consist only of a plinth and a torus. The height of the column usually corresponded to its seven lower diameters.

The rules for constructing an order are set out by Vitruvius in his treatise On Architecture, 1st century. BC. Externally, the buildings of the Tuscan order looked durable and impressive, therefore they symbolized physical power and strength and were used mainly in economic and military buildings, usually on the first floors.

4.Forms of temples of Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece, a strictly ordered plan of the temple developed according to the rules of orders. The most common type of temple is the peripterus, in which columns are located along the entire perimeter of the structure. Most often there are six of them on the main facade. Such temples are called hexastyle peripters.

The cella of the temple is divided into three rooms: the front one, which serves as the vestibule - pronaos; the central, most extensive - naos (or cella, the sanctuary itself) and the opisthodome - for storing gifts - with an entrance from the rear facade.

The most complex type of temple building is the diptera, which includes two rows of columns surrounding the temple.

The order system, justified structurally and architecturally, turned out to be stable and was used without significant changes by builders of subsequent times. It changed only in relation to proportions and in the drawing of details.

The generally understandable figurative division of orders into load-bearing and non-carrying parts, connected by a system of expressive breaks, made the order system by the middle of the 5th century. BC e. flexible artistic language of classical architecture. Instead of the impressive, but somewhat monotonous, harsh power of monumental temples of the Archaic era, the structures acquired greater variety. In practice, architects constantly took advantage of the fact that the slightest change in the relationships between parts of the order made it possible to give it and the structure as a whole a variety of scale and character, an expression of mighty strength or light grace, etc.

4.1 Doric temples

The large temples of the Doric style were characterized by the shape of the peripterus.

The early buildings of the Doric style include the Temple of Hera in Olympia (late 7th - early 6th century BC). It had a cella strongly elongated from west to east, framed on all sides by relatively low columns, which created the impression of a single, squat building. The number of columns was: on the main facade - 6, on the side ones - 16. The columns were at first wooden and gradually, over the centuries, as they deteriorated, they were replaced by stone ones.

Within the cella (naos) there were two rows of columns, the latter being connected through one to the side walls enclosing the cella. This design arose as a result of the desire to further strengthen the load-bearing structure of the building when converting it to a new building material at that time - stone.

First half of the 6th century BC dates back to the temple of Hera (I) at Paestum. An odd number of columns, nine on the main facade of this building, and a tela divided by one row of columns along the axis of the structure are typically archaic features. The shape of the columns is peculiar: their upper diameter is much narrower than the lower one, the bulky capitals have an unusually large projection.

The well-preserved temple of Hera (II) at Paestum (late first quarter of the 5th century BC) is a large hexastyle (six-columned) peripterus built of rough limestone (6x14 columns).

The temple's outline in plan is already close to the monuments of classical times. Its proportions are harmonious, the details are distinguished by the richness and accuracy of the design. At the same time, the structure still contains archaic features (emphasized heaviness of the entire structure).

One of the highest achievements of Greek architecture is the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, built by the architect Libo between 468 and 456. BC e. The Doric peripter with 6X13 columns (their height is 10.5 m, the lower diameter is 2.25 m) is distinguished by extremely harmonious proportions. In the temple, complete aesthetic and visual balance was achieved between supporting and overlapping architectural elements. The details are sharpened with unusual perfection and are characterized by amazing fidelity to the design. The Temple of Zeus at Olympia is the highest achievement in the development of the Doric peripterus. The famous pediment sculptures are of particular interest in this truly classical building. Within the cella was a statue of Zeus by Phidias.

The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athena, is the most significant structure of Ancient Greece. It was the main temple of the ancient Greeks. The Parthenon is one of the most important buildings in the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis.

The temple was built in 447-438 BC. under the leadership of two talented architects - Iktin and Kallikrates. But according to the testimony of someone who lived in BC. According to the ancient Greek historian Plutarch, during the construction of the Acropolis, the head and leader of all the artists was Phidias.”

The Parthenon is an octastyle (eight-column on short facades) peripterus built from Pentelic marble (dimensions along the upper step are 69.5 m long, 30.9 m wide, column height is 10.5 m).

The Parthenon stands on a three-stage pedestal - a stereobat. The pedestal is surrounded by three feet, each half a meter high. There are seventeen columns along the long side of the temple, and eight along the narrow side. The columns are located at a distance of 3 meters from each other.

The ancient Greeks believed that the temple building represented the house of the deity, and this required an enclosed room with the main cult statue in the center. The Parthenon is the temple of Athena the Virgin, and therefore in its center there was a chrysoelephantine (that is, made of ivory and gold plates on a wooden base) statue of the goddess made by Phidias.

The roof of the temple is equipped with triangle pediments, and in front of the entrance there is a light canopy (portico). Under the cornice of the Parthenon there is a bas-relief - a wide strip of sculptural images.

Of all the Roman orders, Tuscan is the simplest in decoration and the heaviest in proportions. The thickness of the column, or the diameter of its lower base, is x h height. The lower third of the column core is a cylinder, and above it it becomes thinner, and this thinning is more sensitive here than in other orders; the upper diameter is Vs part smaller than the lower one. Drawing the thinning rod of the column is done as indicated above, and the rod of the column ends at the top with an astragalus. The column has a base at the bottom and a capital at the top. The height of the base is 1 module; it consists of two clearly defined and equal in height parts. The lower part consists of plinths that are square in plan, the upper part consists of a shaft that is round in plan; The transition from the column rod to the base shaft is a shelf that plays a secondary role, made of the same material as the column rod, and therefore the transition from this shelf to the column rod is made using a fillet. On the table III, the proportions of the constituent parts of the base and the method of their outline are indicated.

The capital, 1 module high, consists of three parts of the same height (Pl. IV). The first part from below, the neck, is a continuation of the core of the column, the second part is occupied by a quarter shaft with a shelf of secondary importance, and the upper part of the capital?* is an abacus (piece stone), which, as stated above, ends at the top with a small secondary profile, in In this case, only a shelf, with a transition to it through a fillet.

In the tables below, the base and capital are shown not only in the facade, but also in section and plan. On the base plan, the first shaded circle depicts a cross-section of the column rod, the next, concentric circle corresponds to the shelf, then there is a top view of the shaft and, finally, a square plinth; the second square on the plan, the largest, marks the cornice of the pedestal (view from above) on which the column stands.

The plan of the capital is depicted as if the horizontal plane of the section passed through the neck; everything that was below this plane is discarded, and only what is above this plane is left, and it is assumed that the viewer is looking at what remains from the bottom up. Thus, on the plan, in addition to the cut round rod, you can see the shelf, the quarter shaft and the abacus of the capital with a protruding shelf.

The entablature consists of three parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice. Aochitrav is a smooth stone, 1 module high, ending at the top with a rather large shelf, according to the rule stated above about piece stones; this shelf is a secondary part.

Since all architraves always end at the top with some kind of profile, at least a simple shelf, we consider it useful to find out the need for such a device. If the architrave did not have this profile, then its plane would merge with the plane of the frieze. On the other hand, the slightest damage to the edge of stones in contact with each other (architrave and frieze) will be very noticeable, since the seam between these stones will be indicated by a dark line, expanding in places where the edge is damaged. Thanks to the shelf protruding from the architrave, this seam is hidden from the eyes of the viewer from below, and damage inevitable during the work becomes invisible. Even if we assume that the upper edge of the shelf is accidentally chipped somewhere, this will not be particularly noticeable, since this edge is brightly lit. The frieze in this order remains completely smooth, and the cornice is the simplest example of cornices in general. Having divided the height of the cornice into three equal parts, let us turn first of all to the most essential part of the cornices - the teardrop.

This piece stone is decorated at the top with an astragalus, and at the bottom it has a notch, which is an indispensable accessory of every teardropper. But at the same time, it is worth noting that the Tuscan teardrop is processed more difficult than the teardrops of all other orders. This is not noticeable on the facade, and therefore you need to pay attention to the cut. On the lower surface of the teardrop there is a recess outlined by a circle and a vertical line, and immediately next to this recess there is a slightly protruding strip, limited on the outer side by a very small circle, ^ on the inner side - also a vertical line. Considering the meaning of the various elements of the profiles, we indicated that for the supporting part the most suitable profile is the heel; in the Tuscan order, this particular form constitutes the supporting part. We also pointed out that the most elementary and natural form of the crowning part of the gutter is the quarter shaft. In this case, this particular form is used for the crowning part.

The entablature of the Tuscan order is shown in section and in plan, and the plan gives a view of the entablature from bottom to top. In the future, we will not call this type a plan, since for a horizontal section viewed from the bottom up, there is another special term - soffit or ceiling.

The pedestal has a base at the bottom and a cornice at the top. The main form of the pedestal base is a plinth, above which a secondary shelf element is placed, and the main form of the pedestal cornice is a heel, above which a small shelf is also placed. Both the base and the pedestal cornice are 7g modules high.

If the Tuscan order is used in an arcade or portico, then a small protrusion is made at the bottom of the piers or pylons, playing the role of a plinth, which looks like a plinth, identical to the base plinth of the pedestal.

The archivolt and impost have the same width (1 module) and the same profiles, consisting of two straight parts of different widths, of which the main one ends with a shelf with a transition to it by means of a fillet. If, according to known data or according to the dimensions recommended by Vignola, a Tuscan portico is built without a pedestal, it will be impossible, due to lack of space, to frame the arch with an archivolt 1 module wide; in this case, the archivolt is not made at all, and instead of the impost, a simple stone-belt, 1 module wide, barely protruding from the wall, is placed, without any finishing with profiles.

Although when drawing Tuscan details you can limit yourself to dimensions that do not require dividing the module into small parts, it must be said that Vignola divides the Tuscan module into 12 desks and gives in desks the dimensions of all the smallest profiles that make up the order. However, you can build Tuscan details without using desks.

All orders drawn according to the simple and natural dimensions that we present in this book are almost no different from Vignola’s samples: if sometimes there is a difference in the sizes of the main parts, it is only a very insignificant one, expressed in fractional parts of the desks. But in the Tuscan order this difference is expressed somewhat more noticeably in the size of the cornice. According to our data, the three parts of the Tuscan cornice are the same in height, while in Vignola the teardrop is much wider due to the supporting and crowning parts. Therefore, if we want to get closer to Vignola’s samples, we can make a Tuscan order teardrop slightly (by eye) wider than the dimensions obtained in our construction. However, artistic criticism considers that the teardropper is too heavy to be one of the shortcomings of Vignola’s Tuscan order. By departing from Vignola's dimensions, we thereby correct this shortcoming.

Tuscan order.

The use of the Tuscan order in ancient Roman architecture can only be judged from the drawings and diagrams of Vitruvius and other art theorists, since not a single building with the Tuscan order of that time has survived. But this fact did not prevent it from becoming widespread in the architecture of subsequent centuries.

Many art theorists have said that the Tuscan column is nothing more than a simpler version of the Doric order, despite its later origin. By simplifying the Doric type, ancient Roman architects managed to achieve visual strength of external buildings. The Tuscan column began to personify power and physical strength, but due to its excessive simplicity, it was practically not used in the construction of temples, preferring to strengthen economic and military buildings with it. If the building consisted of several floors, then in most cases, the first floor was Tuscan.

The column has a base; the capital, Dorian in shape, is complemented by an interception (neck, notch). The entablature consists of two wooden beams lying side by side. There is no frieze, and the role of the cornice is played by the roof, which hangs strongly in the form of a canopy. The column of the Tuscan order has a height equal to 14 modules or, which is the same thing, 7 lower diameters. The diameter of the column, from bottom to top, changes along the entasis curve and near the capital decreases by 1/5 of the lower diameter. The column is smooth and has no molded elements or flutes. The unit of measurement for order elements is the module, which is equal to half the diameter of the column (radius). The module, in turn, is divided into a strictly defined number of so-called desks. The module of the Tuscan and Doric orders is divided into 12 parts (parts), and the module of the Ionic, Corinthian and complex orders is divided into 18 parts.

Doric order.

Greek Doric architecture is distinguished by masculine grandeur, austere simplicity, and monumental solemnity. The Doric order most fully expressed the tectonic basis of Greek architecture

The column of the developed Doric order had no base and rested directly on the upper step of the stereobat. The narrowing (thinning) of the column upward began from the stylobate, but was not uniform: the trunk was swollen - entasis, the maximum of which was approximately 1/3 of the column height. The surface of the column trunk was enlivened by vertical grooves - fluted, the number of which was most often 20. The flutes created a play of light and shadow, emphasizing the verticality of the column.

The capital consisted of a round cushion - Echina and the square slab lying on it - abacus(or abacus) and neck (hypotrachelion). The lower part of the echinus was decorated with embedded profiled belts - straps, the number of which ranged from 1 to 5. The capital was separated from the column trunk by horizontal recesses (from 1 to 4), called incisions of the hypotrachelion.

The entablature of the Dorian order always consisted of three elements: an architrave, a frieze and a cornice.

The Doric order entablature always consisted of three elements: an architrave, a frieze and a cornice.

The Doric architrave was a smooth beam resting on the capitals of the columns. At the top it ended with a small shelf - tenia. Above the architrave was a Doric frieze (triglyphon), consisting of triglyphs And metope. The trglyphs had the shape of rectangles elongated in the vertical direction, the surface of which coincided with the plane of the architrave. The triglyph had vertical cuts: two full cuts in the middle part and two half-cuts along the edges.

Between the triglyphs were placed slightly elongated slabs - metopes. They were recessed in relation to the plane of the triglyphs and were often decorated with reliefs. On the lower side of the third, under each triglyph, there was a small shelf - regula. The lower surface of the regula was processed with six drops (lat.-gutta).

For each intercolumnium(the distance between the columns) there were two metopes and two triglyphs. Triglyphs were located above the centers of each column and each intercolumnium. In order for the triglyph frieze to receive a metrically and tectonically complete solution, the outer triglyphs were shifted from the axis of the outer column to the corner of the antamlment. In this case, the metope closest to the corner became longer than the others and violated the metrical structure of the frieze. Thus the "angular triglyph problem" arose. The following contributed to smoothing out the difference in the length of the corner marks:

Reduction of extreme and sometimes adjacent intercolumns;

The corner, and sometimes the adjacent columns, were tilted to the center of the facade, and the corner column, which belonged to two facades at the same time, tilted along the bisector of the stereobat corner.

The cornice located above the frieze - Gayson its crowning part protruded strongly forward, sharply hanging over the lower elements of the entablature. The main part of the cornice - the outer slab - had an outward slope on the lower side, protecting the lower parts of the structure from rainwater leaks. Along the top of the slab stretched sima – a gutter formed by the outermost tiles of a roof.

The lower surface of the cornice is equipped with rectangular projections - mutals, located one above each triglyph and each metope. On the underside of the mutul there were capitals arranged in three rows of six capitals each.

The Doric temple had an elongated rectangular shape and was covered with a gable tiled roof. The upper part of the end facade was separated from its main plane by a horizontal cornice; the inclined edges of the slopes were also processed in the form of cornices, forming a pediment. The triangular field of the pediment without the cornices framing it was called tympanum

The inclined cornices of the pediment differed from the horizontal ones by the presence of a sima, which ended at the lower corners of the pediment with water cannons in the form of lion heads. The pediments of the temples were decorated with sculpture. On the roof, at the corners of the gables, they placed acroteria(sculptural or ornamental decorations).

Ionic order.

The Ionic order differs from the Doric in lightness of proportions, refinement of forms, and wide use of decor.

The Ionic column was divided into three parts: base, trunk, capital. The base consisted of alternating concave and convex elements, figuratively expressing the compression force that it transmitted to the development of the temple. The Ionic base sometimes did not have a square slab. Convex elements - shafts or tori - were often decorated with ornamental cutting or horizontal flutes. Concave elements – scotia remained smooth.

The Ionic column is slimmer than the Doric. The thinning of the trunk is less than in the Doric order; entasis is most often absent. The flutes (usually there were 24 of them) were separated by narrow strips - paths. In plan, the cannelures were a semicircle or part of an ellipse. At the top and bottom they usually had a semicircular end.

The Ionic capital, in contrast to the more uniform Doric one, is found in a large number of variants. It consisted of an abacus, a pillow with currencies and echin. Volutes - pillow curls forming two shafts on the sides of the capital - were called balustrades. The echinus of the Ionic capital is covered with cuttings in the form ov or ionics. Due to the fact that the Ionic capital had sides that were sharply different from each other, the shape of the capital with a diagonal volute was established for the corner columns.

The entablature of the main Asia Minor variant of the ironic order consisted of two parts: an architrave and a cornice. Small horizontal ledges divided the architrave into three smooth stripes, slightly overhanging one over the other - fascia. Between the architrave and the cornice there was a belt of cloves or crackers (lat. - denticulum). Crowning part - sima decorated with rich ornamental carvings.

The second version of the Ionic order developed in Attica in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC. It was distinguished primarily by its three-part entablature, which consisted of an architrave, a continuous frieze decorated with reliefs, and a cornice without dentils.

Belt of dentils and frieze until the 4th century. BC. were not used simultaneously in the same entablature.

Corinthian order.

The Corinthian order, whose characteristic feature is a capital in the form of a basket with leaves, owes its popularity to the Romans, among whom it was extremely widely used. Among the Greeks, it played a very minor role and is considered only as a more luxurious version of the Ionian order.

Vitruvius in his treatises very clearly separated the two older orders from each other, calling the Doric “male” and the Ionic “female”. Corinthian, due to its unusual structure, received a more complex symbolic meaning, since, according to Vitruvius, it was called upon to “imitate maiden slenderness.”

The Corinthian capital is shaped like a bowl or basket, entwined with a double row of acanthus leaves. Thin stems, smoothly growing from the leaves, curl into eight small volutes at the corners. The abacus of a Corinthian capital has a peculiar shape with concave edges.

The Corinthian order is characterized by a rich play of light and shadow, living organic forms combined with slender and graceful proportions of the column. The entablature of the Corinthian order, consisting of a picturesque architrave, frieze and cornice, is also usually distinguished by the presence of a huge number of decorative details, floral and figurative ornaments.

The comprehensiveness of the Corinthian capital, inherited from the Doric order, as well as the plasticity and flexibility of Ionic forms, made the Corinthian order the most popular in the Hellenistic era, and during the heyday of Roman architecture, and in the Renaissance.

A characteristic feature of this order is the bell-shaped capital covered with stylized acanthus leaves. The height is 20 modules, the diameter is 1/10 of the height. The diameter of a Corinthian column varies along a curve, from bottom to top, just like that of an Ionic order column; There are 24 flutes on her body, separated from each other by tracks (or straps). The order consists of a pedestal, a chair, a base, a column base, an entablature gimp, an entablature cornice, a frieze and an architrave. The capital of the Corinthian order is quite complex, and therefore most of it is made by modeling. The capital is vase-shaped and contains an astragalus. The abacus has concave sides supported by four large and four small spiral-shaped scrolls. Along the circumference of the capital there are acanthus leaves in two rows. The bottom row has 8 small leaves placed above the astragalus, the top row consists of 8 large leaves located in the spaces between the leaves of the bottom row under the curls. . The capital is also decorated with lilies, curls, flowers, etc. The unit of measurement for order elements is the module, which is equal to half the diameter of the column (radius). The module, in turn, is divided into a strictly defined number of so-called desks. The module of the Tuscan and Doric orders is divided into 12 parts (parts), and the module of the Ionic, Corinthian and complex orders is divided into 18 parts.

The Corinthian order can easily be called the crown of the ancient Greek order system. Having absorbed all the best qualities of the Doric and Ionic architectural order, it embodied all the experience and skill of the architects of the Ancient World.

Composite order

Composite order is an architectural order that originated in Ancient Rome. It is a combination of elements of the Ionic and Corinthian orders - both volutes and an ornament in the form of acanthus leaves are used in the capitals.

The architects of Ancient Rome, who inherited the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders, had a different task. Their support function was performed by powerful walls, not columns, so the order was most often used exclusively for decorative purposes.

The design of the triumphal arch of Emperor Septimius Severus, built in 203 AD, gives a clear idea of ​​the role of the composite order in ancient Roman architecture. Along with stucco reliefs, the capital of the composite order added pomp and pomp to the overall appearance of the building.

The composite column in the works of many architectural theorists is characterized as mixed or complex, since it combines two ancient Greek orders.

Palladio, in his 1570 treatise, depicted the composite order in detail. Like Vignola, he believed that the proportions of the composite column were completely identical to the Corinthian one, but its capital and entablature required special attention and craftsmanship.

Pedestal, base, capital and various details of a composite order using the example of the triumphal arch of Titus in Rome.

In the fifteenth century, when the canons of orders were finally established, it was the composite that took the top position in the hierarchy.
The Composite order is closest in architectural features to the Corinthian order; it adopted the subtlety and lightness of its predecessor, and in proportions it also exactly repeats it.

But at the same time, its capitals always contain Ionic volutes located diagonally, as well as sculptural compositions and various details that are not found in Corinthian. Typically, any magnificent decoration of the capital could only be used in the composite order; it was a kind of quintessence of grace and luxury in this direction of architecture. Columns with a similar design usually crowned the uppermost floors of buildings.

The proportions of the parts of the capital of the composite order remain exactly the same as in the Corinthian order. The difference between the Corinthian capital and the capital of the complex order is that in the place where the curls and small leaves are located in the Corinthian capital, in the capitals of the complex order there are Ionic volutes.

In the entablature, the proportions of the parts remain the same as in the Corinthian order, if minor changes in the overall composition are not taken into account.

The pedestal and the base of a complex order differ only in the composition of the jib and the base of the pedestal. The same applies to the base of the column.

The spread of the composite order was mainly limited to Italy, when Renaissance masters showed keen interest in this ancient art. In almost all buildings in Rome, dating from the fifteenth century and later, one can find the composite order: churches, monasteries, palazzos - all these architectural monuments amaze with their sophistication even today.

Tools and materials.

In the process of completing the course work “Studying architectural orders and executing them in a drawing,” certain tools are used at each stage. First of all, you need triangles - plastic, isosceles with angles of 45°, 45° and 90°, and with angles of 30°, 60° and 90°. To draw parallel lines, you need a measuring rod and rulers. Simple pencils НВ, Н, 2Н, 3Н, 4Н which correspond to the designations ТМ, Т, 2Т, 3Т, 4Т.

In geometric constructions of curvilinear elements of an architectural object, a compass may be needed, and for precise measurements, a meter may be needed. These tools should be of good quality, with precise needle ends on the gauge, and well-adjustable holder screws on the compass.

Patterns are used for drawing curved lines. Before tracing the curve according to the pattern, it is recommended to draw it with a thin line by hand by eye, while trying to give the curved line the smoothest outline possible, only after that select a pattern that corresponds to the curve of one or another section of it. The pattern section should be selected so that at least three to four connected points coincide with the contour of the pattern. When continuing the curve, it is necessary that not only the next two or three points coincide with the contour of the pattern, but also one or two previous ones.

Rubber bands for work use soft ones that do not damage the surface layer of the paper. To remove an unnecessary drawing line with an eraser, so as not to damage nearby graphic information, it is recommended to use or make your own stencils from thin material (paper, photographic film). The stencil should have narrow slits for removing lines and round or square holes for removing numbers and incorrectly applied letters.

The paper on which architectural drawings are drawn must be of very good quality.

Literature

1. Vignola. Rules of five orders. –M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Architecture, 1940. – 186 p.

2. Vitruvius. Ten books about architecture. –M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Architecture, 1936. – 255 p.

3. Ikonnikov A.V., Stepanov G.P. Fundamentals of architectural composition. – M.: Art, 1971. – 223 p.

4. Mikhalkovsky I. B. Theory of classical architectural forms. –M.: Higher School, 1940. – 240 p.

5. Palladio. Four books about architecture. –M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Architecture, 1936. – 142 p.

Appendix A.

Structure and main parts of the order.

K category: Plastering works

Architectural orders. building entasis

The architectural complete order (Fig. 1, a) consists of three parts: a pedestal - the lower part, a column - the middle part and an entablature - the upper part. An incomplete order (Fig. 1, b) does not have a pedestal.

The pedestal also consists of three parts: the base, the body of the pedestal, or chair, and the cornice. The base is the lower part of the pedestal in the form of a high shelf or slab, on which shelves, rollers, jibs, etc. are located, depending on the order. The body of the pedestal (chair) is located on the base. At the top, the pedestal is topped with a cornice of simple or complex shape.

The column rests on a pedestal and supports an entablature. The column also consists of three parts: the base, the core (body) of the column itself and the capital. The base is the lower part, usually consisting of a thick slab (shelf), on which architectural pieces of the desired shape are located. The body of the column, ending with a capital, is installed on the base.

The core of a column is usually cylindrical from the base to 1/3 of the height, and at the remaining 2/3 of the height it gradually becomes conical with slight thinning, but not in a straight line, but along a smooth curve called entasis. Sometimes columns become thinner not only at the top, but also at the bottom, i.e. have double thinning. For such columns, the greatest thickness is located 1/3 of the distance from the bottom of the column.

The entablature is located above the column and consists of three parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice (crowning).

The proportions of the complete order are as follows: if the height is divided into 19 equal parts, then the height of the pedestal will be four parts, the columns - 12 parts and the entablature - three parts. An incomplete order is divided into five parts: four parts - a column, one part - an entablature.

Depending on the form, architectural orders are distinguished: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. The scale of all parts of the order is the radius of the column at its lower base. This radius is called a module and is designated by the letter M. In the Tuscan and Doric orders, the module is divided into 12 parts, and in the Ionic and Corinthian orders - into 18. These parts are called desks and are designated by the letter P. The cores of the columns of all orders are round.

The Tuscan order (Fig. 2, a) has massive parts.

Column smooth

Rice. 1. Full (a) and incomplete (b) orders

Rice. 2. Tuscan (a) and Doric (b) orders

Rice. 3. Ionic order

On the smooth frieze there are triglyphs - three even stripes separated by triangular notches. The depressions between triglyphs are called metopes. They can be smooth or with images made from various materials. Decorations in the form of cloves, crackers or modules are made under the cornice. Such orders are either completely executed by plasterers, or triglyphs, crackers and modulons, and sometimes capitals are executed by sculptors.

The Ionic order (Fig. 3) also has a column tapering upward. In height it is equal to 9 diameters, or 18 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the trunk, deeper than those of a Doric column. They are separated by paths or ribbons. At the bottom, the flutes are cut at a right angle, and at the top as a semicircle. The capital is complex with scrolls or volutes and ions. The entablature of the order consists of a smooth architrave with three horizontal ledges. There is a shelf above the upper ledge, and below it there is a relief ornament. The frieze can be smooth or with relief images. The cornice is smooth and only under the shelf there are crackers with beads. The capital and all the ornamentation are done by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

The Corinthian order (Fig. 4) has a complex capital and pedestal. The column rod is equal to 10 diameters, or 20 modules. There are 24 flutes running along the column, separated by paths that end in semicircles at the top and bottom. The capital consists of 16 volutes supported by two rows of acanthus leaves. The entablature has modules, which are located under the teardrop at some distance from each other. The frieze of the order is a smooth plane above which the ornament is located. The crowning cornice is similar to the Ionic one. All relief parts of the order are made by sculptors, the rest by plasterers.

Instead of round columns, square, even, or tapering columns are often installed. Such columns are made with or without a capital. Pilasters (half a column protruding from the wall) most often have a capital at the top. Pilasters are either smooth or fluted. Sometimes they make rusticated columns, i.e. with imitation stonework.

Depending on the shape and finish, the columns are plastered, leveling the solution with a rule, a trowel or a trowel with entasis, or pulled out, especially if flutes run along the column trunk.

Building entasis. There is a column with a radius (module) of the lower base of 360 mm. The module of the Tuscan and Doric orders is equal to 12 desks (the desk is 30 mm), and the module of the Ionic and Corinthian orders is 18 desks (the desk is 20 mm). The lower diameter for all orders is equal to two modules. The columns of the Tuscan and Doric orders have a height of 14 and 16 modules. The upper diameter is equal to 1 module 8 desks, the thinning for the entire length of the column is 120 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 60 mm.

For a column of the Ionic and Corinthian orders with a height of 18 and 20 modules, the upper diameter is 1 module 12 desks, the thinning on the upper diameter for the entire column is 140 mm, for the radius or half of the column - 70 mm. Knowing this data, we begin to build entasis.

On a wide board, draw a column to scale and draw its axis in the center (Fig. 5, a). On one third of the column, i.e. where thinning begins, arc AB is drawn with the lower radius of the column from the center O. Then, from points B and D, which determine the upper diameter of the column, draw lines until they intersect with arc AB, where they form points marked with the number 7. Dividing A1 and 1B into an arbitrary number of identical parts, in this case four (1, 2, 3, 4), divide the remaining 2/3 of the columns into the same number of parts and draw horizontal lines perpendicular to the axis along the division points.

Rice. 5. Corinthian order

To make the rule-pattern, take a planed board. It should be 50-100 mm wider than the thinning of the entire column. The length of the board is equal to 2/3 of the height of the column. A piece of plywood is nailed to one end of the board, after which, from the evenly planed edge, the difference between the radii of the lower and upper parts of the column is measured on the board (in the case being disassembled, 60 mm) and a line is drawn parallel to the edge of the board. The point of intersection of the lines is marked with the letter A. Spread the legs of the compass to the size of the desired radius (in this case 360 ​​mm), place one leg at point A, and the other on the plywood (nailed on the other side of the board) and draw an arc.

Rice. 6. Construction of entasis and production of a rule-pattern in two ways (a, b) for a column with a 360 mm module

Rice. 7. Hanging columns even (a) and with entasis (b)

This arc is divided into an arbitrary number of identical parts. Divide the length of the board into the same number of parts, draw all the necessary lines, find the points and connect them with a curved line. Then the plywood is removed, the unnecessary part of the board is selected or cut out, and the edge of the remaining pattern is cleaned. Sometimes the edge is bound with steel.

The rule can be made in another way (Fig. 6, b). Plane a square cross-section of non-knotted wood with a length equal to the height of the column. Then they take a board equal to the height of the column, draw a straight line on it for the entire length and measure point B from above this line at a distance equal to the thinning of the column by its radius. For example, the column is thinned by 120 mm, which means a radius of 60 mm. A straight line on the board is divided into three parts. One lower part is straight, and two thirds are tapered.

The lath is nailed to the drawn bottom straight line with two or three nails, and then the remaining 2/3 of the lath is bent to point B and nailed. The curve formed by the curved lath is entasis. A line is drawn with a pencil along this strip on the board. The lath is removed, a cut is made along a curve, it is cleaned and a rule-pattern is obtained.

- Architectural orders. building entasis