Defining the boundaries dividing these disciplines makes it possible to more clearly define the subject of economic sociology. M. Weber formulated the content of this subject as follows: economic sociology studies economic action as a form of social action. Social action is the basis and at the same time the internal element of economic action. Social action is internally motivated, and the subject performing such an action expects from other people such a reaction, which he is obliged to reckon with.

Thus, in defining the subject of economic sociology, we move on to the position of the so-called methodological individualism, that is, to clarify what motives the subject is guided by in his activity. But after all, traditional economics begins its analysis from the same positions. What is the business entity guided by in making decisions? The economist's answer is simple: the desire to get the fastest and maximum profit(benefits). This answer is absolutely correct from the point of view of the elementary common sense and fully corresponds to the logic of the market system: after all, another decision will bring a loss and can lead to the ruin of the subject.

In real life, however, people are often guided in their actions by more complex and, if you like, lofty motives that run counter to considerations of direct and momentary benefit. The task of economic sociology is to study such motives and impulses. V. Radaev is absolutely right, asserting that "the intentions of the two disciplines are directly opposite: economic theory makes a reduction to the ordinary, and economic sociology -" defamation "of the ordinary". 1 Sociologists are just engaged in clarifying the intrinsic motivation of human actions, that is, "defamation" of the superficial and ordinary. These searches can be carried out in the sociocultural, religious sphere, in the field of interpersonal, national and power relations 2 N. Smelser expands the boundaries of economic sociology, believing that “this discipline studies the relationship between the economic and non-economic aspects of social life. It should also be noted that the "methodological individualism" of economic theory differs markedly from the "methodological individualism" of economic sociology. The first assumes that individuals (economic entities) are completely free and independent in making decisions, for example, in the process of allocating available resources. In contrast to economists, sociology proceeds from the fact that the individual is always bound in his actions by both internal and external circumstances 3.

It would be, however, deeply misleading to believe that the mentioned "connectedness" of agents economic process always and everywhere acts as a hindrance in making rational decisions. Sociologists dealing with the problems of regional development, for example, drew attention to the phenomenon of rapid economic growth in certain regions of Italy and France, which was observed just in the period (mid-1970s), when the countries of Western Europe were in the grip of a severe economic crisis. They found the clue to such a "strange" phenomenon in the economic behavior of business entities who, within the territorial okrug, on the basis of a uniform system of values ​​and mentality, mutual obligations to organize cooperation, which, combined with healthy competition, brought beneficial results to all participants in the socioeconomic process 1.

In this case (as in many others), economic sociology was able to provide convincing answers to the problems that arose (and provide the necessary recommendations) in those areas where "pure" economic theory was powerless. Developing for a long time separately from economics and in parallel with it, economic sociology in the last three decades increasingly invades the sphere of interests of economic theory, using empirical material traditionally used by economists in their research. The widespread use of such material gives sociologists the opportunity to come to more substantiated conclusions and forecasts. The category of social action, which has become the object of study of two related disciplines, acts as a connecting link that unites economic theory and economic sociology. The latter, while maintaining the independence of a separate science, increasingly provides its services to economic theory and economic practice in solving complex issues of modern social life.

Foreword

In the context of the development of new forms of management, it becomes necessary to acquire and constantly update economic knowledge, requires studying the foundations of economic theory.

The textbook presents a systematic course in economic theory, which examines economic categories, patterns and processes at the level of micro- and macroeconomics, as well as international economic relations. When writing the textbook, the authors used the scientific achievements of well-known representatives of various economic directions, the experience of teaching this academic discipline in the law academy and published educational literature, the textbook presents the peculiarities of the development of the transitional economy of Ukraine. At the same time, an important place is occupied by the issues of legal regulation of new economic phenomena and processes in the conditions of the formation of market relations, as well as the appearance of negative phenomena - crisis, inflation, a sharp decrease in population demand, criminalization and aggravation of threats to the economic security of the state.

In these conditions, the population has a need for a certain independent interpretation of ways to improve their economic life, reform the country's economy. Everyone is ready to give recipes for the treatment of old and the formation of new economic and legal relations. But it should be remembered that this requires a scientific substantiation of the models and trends of economic development. This can only be done at a professional level, based on the scientific knowledge of economic theory as a science and academic discipline. This publication will allow the reader to understand the basic concepts and patterns of building a new economic system in Ukraine - a socially oriented market economy. At the same time, the authors of the course on the basics of economic theory have made such a structure that will clarify the relationship between economics and law, theory and practice of economic development.

INTRODUCTION TO ECONOMIC THEORY

Economic theory as a science and academic discipline

Subject of the course "Fundamentals of Economic Theory"

Economic theory- a multifaceted social theoretical science, which consistently throughout its existence has acquired an integral system of scientific views and ideas about the economic life of society, the laws of development of the national economy, its subjects in the conditions of market relations. Economic theory, like all sciences, has its own object of study and subject of study, which in the process of development of the economic activity of man and society are constantly acquiring new characteristics and characteristics. A person acts as an active participant and subject of the economic life of society, a producer of material goods that are necessary to meet his needs and interests. Subsequently, new needs arise, which can only be met by organizing effective activities within the family, team, firm, enterprise, industry, region, country or the whole world. Therefore, economic theory has a complex subject, is constantly being formed and developed.

There are many definitions of economic science and its subject: economics (IV-III centuries BC) - these are economic views on the art of housekeeping; political economy (XVII-XX centuries) - a science that studies the economic relations that arise between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption; economics (XIX-XX centuries) - the science of the effective use of limited resources in order to achieve maximum satisfaction of the material needs of man and society. The modern understanding of the term "economic science" includes the definition of such elements of its subject: economic activity; patterns of development of economic systems; relations arising in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods; property-market relations; the use of rare or limited resources by people for the production of various goods and services and their distribution among members of society in order to meet their needs; mechanisms for solving major economic problems (what, how, for whom, how much to produce and the ability of the economic system to reform), etc. The definition of these elements of the subject of economic theory are interconnected, complement each other and reflect various aspects and problems of economic life.

The subject of economic theory, depending on the level of research of economic phenomena and the scale of the functioning of the economy, has a complex multi-tiered structure (Fig. 1).

The object of study of economic theory at the level of microeconomics is a separate economic entity - the economic activity of a person, family, firm, enterprise, which is specific and accessible to perception.

The national economy as a whole. its subject is complex, generalized, aggregated, requires deep scientific research and government regulation.

The economy should be branches of the national economy, intermediate systems and complexes (military-industrial, agro-industrial, energy, etc.), which make up the mesoeconomics.

Economic theory studies economic phenomena and processes also at the level of the international economy as a system of the world economy, international economic relations and relations, that is, supermacroeconomics.

All these levels of the economy are components of economic theory, are interconnected, complement each other and contribute to the study of its subject.

Economic theory, depending on the scope of application, is divided into positive and normative. Positive economic theory learns and predicts objective economic phenomena, forms an integral system of scientific views, hypotheses and concepts. Economic theory as an academic discipline is generally positive. A scientist-economist, examining the facts of economic life, states the state of the economy, formulates characteristic features, explains their nature and content, draws conclusions about the future of its development.

Normative economics is the science of the rational behavior of people and the activities of economic institutions. It is designed to answer the question of what should be done, what should be, how to act in order to achieve the desired end results, one must have.

Economic theory as a theoretical science and academic discipline contains positive conclusions and generalizations, but the practice of management, especially at the level of macroeconomics, requires specific recommendations, normative instructions on how to reduce the state budget deficit, the level of inflation, how to overcome the crisis, etc.

Both of these areas of application of economic theory should work effectively and contribute to the study of its subject and the formation of a person's economic thinking, market economic behavior.

Economic thinking in a person is formed in the process of his activity as a subject of economic life and the acquisition of knowledge about economic concepts, phenomena and laws. Economic thinking is the process of reflection, reproduction of the consciousness of people, their economic relations in the form of ideas, concepts, theories or the assimilation of economic knowledge acquired by society by people, information processing. Therefore, there are two types of economic thinking: conventional and scientific.

Ordinary economic thinking- This is a person's thinking at the level of his life experience, practice of production and consumption of goods. As a rule, it is subjective, superficial, one-sided and may be accompanied by low performance. This kind of thinking is especially unacceptable for macroeconomic leaders.

Scientific economic thinking- this is the thinking of a person who has mastered the knowledge acquired by society and economic science and their implementation at a professional level using a conceptual, categorical apparatus. A person who has scientific thinking, learns all links of economic development, objectively evaluates economic reality and consciously uses the system of scientific economic categories, concepts and laws.

Economic thinking makes it possible for economic entities to more consciously realize their abilities, value orientations, and effective economic behavior.

Economic behavior- these are certain actions of the subject of the economy, his actions in relation to the environment, reactions to specific goals, values ​​and tasks. The economic behavior of the subjects of a market economy should be guided by the principles of limited (scarcity) resources, unlimited needs, alternativeness and freedom of economic choice, which are open to economic science.

The development of the economy requires resources (material, human, natural, investment), which tend to be limited, firstly, by nature or the territory of the country; secondly, the impossibility of their reproduction; third, growth in population, production of goods and services, unlimited increase in diversity, quantity and levels of needs. The limited resources, the constant need for them for the production of material goods and services necessitate the choice of ways of rational, effective use of these resources, that is, achieving efficiency. Economic efficiency as a goal of activity requires taking into account the relationship between the amount of scarce resources required for production (costs) and the results obtained (output). The efficiency of economic activity takes place when costs decrease or remain unchanged with an increase in the volume of output of the necessary material goods. So, a characteristic feature of the economic behavior of all subjects of economic life is their activity on the efficient use of rare resources to meet needs.

The scarcity of resources is acutely felt by individuals and society, because economic needs are constantly growing. Economic theory studies needs, which are the driving motive of human activity to eliminate needs for something. The concept of need means a special psychological state of a person, awareness of the conditions necessary for life. In order to live, people must produce material goods, exchange them and satisfy not only their physiological needs (for food, clothing, housing, recreation, etc.), but also the needs due to their position in a given social environment (education, culture , sports, etc.).

Needs are classified into certain types depending on the criteria:

By subject - individual, group, collective, public;

According to the object - material, spiritual, cultural, and the like;

By field of activity - in work, rest, etc .;

By the degree of implementation: absolute (due to the current level of development of the world economy), real (which correspond to the level of development of the economy of a given country), solvent (which a person can satisfy in accordance with his own income and price level)

In terms of importance - primary (physiological, needs for safety and security) and secondary (intellectual, social).

Economic needs- this is a part of human needs, for the satisfaction of which the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods and services are necessary. Human existence is closely related to the satisfaction of all needs, but primarily primary, material (food, water, air, etc.). The economy of developed countries creates economic potential, which makes it possible to meet the needs of the highest level (intellectual), which are unlimited.

The unlimited economic needs means that they cannot be fully satisfied; they have the ability to increase and reproduce. Needs are closely related to economic interest, which arises when the satisfaction of a need is perceived as a specific goal. Economic interests turn out to be goals and actions aimed at meeting needs.

A person (firm, state) cannot have everything he wants, she has to choose from existing opportunities and make decisions about the expenditure of scarce resources to meet a specific need. For example, the economy cannot increase the production of a particular good if it does not give up another. Therefore, the development of the economy is associated with the choice of the rational use of rare resources and satisfaction of needs.

Alternative is the choice of one solution (option) out of two possible, mutually exclusive. The alternative choice in the economy should be accompanied by production efficiency and an increase in the level of satisfaction of needs. For example, the development of the economy can be ensured by producing cannons or machine tools from metal as a limited resource. If you make tools, you have enough metal to make machine tools. Therefore, the government must make the right alternative choice between these industries. The optimal choice will ensure increased benefits and lower costs.

The alternative of choice is accompanied by the alternative of costs associated with the loss of production of those goods that could be produced from the resources used.

Vladislav Feldblum

Interdisciplinary general economic theory in action

(electronic version of the book)

http://i41.tinypic.com/55m443.jpg
Yaroslavl - 2015

The author of the book, Doctor of Chemical Sciences, professor, for many years independently studied political economy and industrial economics, mathematical economics, higher and applied mathematics, history, philosophy, psychology and other scientific disciplines. His goal was to take a new approach to solving an important and complex problem - to the creation of a general theory of socio-economic development. As is known, the first attempt of this kind was undertaken in their works by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, but this task could not be solved by scientific means of that time and on the basis of only previous historical experience. This is now possible. This required non-trivial approaches and research at the intersection of sciences, the application of the methods of natural science and mathematics in the humanities, the analysis of additional historical experience from the time of Marx and Engels to the present day. The result was the creation of an interdisciplinary general economic theory, to which this book is devoted. The new theory can be viewed as a continuation and generalization of the economic teachings of Karl Marx, Alfred Marshall, Vasily Leontiev and other prominent economists in relation to modern historical conditions. The author not only sets out his theory, but also shows how it “works”, how much its results, conclusions and forecasts are confirmed in practice, in real life. The book examines topical issues of foreign and domestic policy of Russia. The concept of a new humane society is put forward and substantiated, to which, according to the author, the country will come, subject to the continued implementation of an optimal state policy.

The book is addressed to politicians, scientists, public figures and, of course, to all those who want to understand the objective laws of socio-economic development, who are not indifferent to the fate of our country and the prospects of its development in modern world.

To my 80th birthday and the 20th anniversary of my book

"Towards general economic theory through the interaction of sciences" (1995)
author

"We need economists like Niels Bohr, de Broglie, Heisenberg and Dirac to reconstruct or revolutionize economic theory in the same way that these people revolutionized physical theory."

Gardiner Means

Introduction …………………………………………………………… .8

Chapter 1. Basics of interdisciplinary general economic

theory ……………………………………………………………… .9

1. 
   On the subject of interdisciplinary general economic theory ... 10
2. 
   Political Economy and Natural Science ……………………… .11
3. 
   Political Economy and Mathematics ………………………… ... 13
4. 
   On the analogy of natural and social processes ………… ... 16
5. 
   Labor process and its unusual analogy ……………………… ..19
6. 
   Animated production function …………………… ... 25
7. 
   Macroeconomic balance. Revolutionary situation

in the language of mathematics ……………………………………………… 29

1. 
   Productive forces, relations of production and

general economic law …………………………………… ... 31

1. 
   Labor motivation as the basis of industrial relations ... ..33
2. 
   Scientific and technical progress ……………………………… 38
3. 
   Socio-economic formations …………………… ..45
4. 
   Primitive, slave and feudal

society ……………………………………………………… ..52

1. 
   Early capitalism …………………………………………… .55
2. 
   Modern capitalism …………………………………… ..61

- Capitalism as a diverse system ………………. 62

Curbing the market forces ............................................................. 65

Macroeconomic regulation ………………… ..68

Humanization of labor ……………………………………… 76

Scientific and technical progress ………………………… ..79

The legacy of early capitalism ………………………… .80

Basic economic law ……………………… 82

1. 
   Socialism and communism ……………………………………… 85

- Socialism in the interdisciplinary general economic

theory …………………………………………………… .86

Communism in an interdisciplinary general economic

theory …………………………………………………… .88

The economic paradox of communism ………………… 93

The Soviet version of socialism ………………………… 94

Restructuring ……………………………………………… 100

1. 
   Russia at a crossroads …………………………………………… 107

Chapter 2. Towards a New Humane Society: A Program for Russia

2.1 Scientific basis of the program ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 146

Karl Marx ………………………………………………… .148

Interdisciplinary general economic theory and

"Economics" ………………………………………………… 154

Ideology and science ………………………………………… ..154

2.2 About “Strategy 2020” and “Strategy XXI” ………………………… 155

2.3 A new humane society is not capitalism …………………… 165

2.4 A new humane society is not socialism and not communism ... ... 169

2.5 The new humane society is not “post-industrial

society "………………………………………………………… ..175

2.6 Towards a new humane society ………………………………… 178

2.7 Program for Russia: strategy and tactics ……………………. 181

2.8 Program for Russia: the pace and quality of economic

growth ……………………………………………………………… 184

2.9 Program for Russia: Principles of Optimal Policy …… ..207

State Building and Power Efficiency… .209

Population policy ………………………………… ... 212

Economic policy …………………………………… ... 216

Inflation and Competition with Russian Specificity ……… .218

Fight against corruption ………………………………………… ..222

Social policy ………………………………………… .224

Agrarian policy …………………………………………… .225

Monetary and Fiscal Policy ………………… ..226

Housing policy ……………………………………… ..227

Healthcare ……………………………………………… 228

Science and education ………………………………………… ..229

Youth policy ……………………………………… ... 230

Import substitution as an urgent task of the industrial,

agrarian and scientific-technical policy ………………… ..231

Foreign policy and defense capacity of the country ………… 237
Instead of a conclusion: answers to the main questions of my

readers ……………………………………………………… ... 241

List of literature sources …………………………… ..243

Appendix ………………………………………………………. 250

Foreword

The passion for knowledge is the source of high joys,

prepared for noble souls.
Gustave Flaubert

On the eve of the eightieth birthday, it is time to take stock of the life path. I'm very lucky! No, I didn't win a million, I didn't get a pile of property, or a lot of money. I did not become a boss, academician, honored worker or honorary member. I am an ordinary professor. But I have something more that many have never had: I was fortunate enough to experience those high joys that the great Flaubert spoke about.

I was lucky in the main thing: fate allowed me to live with a clear conscience. I did not please, I did not beg for indulgences and privileges. He did not waste his energy and time in search of benefits, acquiring the necessary acquaintances, intrigues and all that, without which it is impossible to break through to the mighty of this world. Of course, he was not always completely frank, did not cut the truth, but did not lie, did not flatter, did not grovel. He did not do mean things to anyone, but he also did not forgive when they tricked me. People will keep my books, inventions, publications in magazines, articles on the Internet. I experienced joy from love and friendship, from scientific findings, from the sincere respect of subordinates, from the upbringing of young scientists, from communicating with students, from meeting and working together with very interesting people.

As a chemist and technologist, I managed to do everything that I had planned. But fate gave me a surprise: I was carried away by research at the intersection of sciences, the creation of a modern general economic theory, a new political economy, interdisciplinary and mathematical in nature. In this field, I managed to do what I did not even expect from myself. I did not limit myself to scientific research and made my contribution to public practice, influenced the entire course of our life.

I did not advertise this. Only thanks to many years of secrecy did I manage to work with concentration on an important and complex problem for decades, without interruption, without looking back at anyone, without asking anyone's permission. Otherwise, I could not have done anything. I would not be able to check for a sufficiently long time how my general economic theory works, whether theory is consistent with practice, whether my conclusions and forecasts are confirmed by real life. It turned out - they are confirmed! This is my main conclusion. I worked like an ox, gave my best, not demanding anything in return. People will still remember me and maybe say thank you.

Introduction
The book offered to the readers is the final one in a kind of "trilogy". In 1995, in Yaroslavl, my book "Towards general economic theory through the interaction of sciences" was published. It was published in a small print run, very modestly. It did not go on sale, the entire circulation was donated to libraries, scientific institutes, universities, public organizations and individuals. I received letters of thanks from libraries, many readers expressed their opinions, criticisms and questions. I tried to answer everyone. The main thing that interested the readers was how it happened that the chemist came to political economy. I answered it in the second book, Invasion of the Unshakable: The Chemist's Path to Political Economy. The book was published in 2007 and posted on the Internet. And now this is the third book. The main motive for writing it was the numerous requests from readers to tell how they could get acquainted with the first book. How could you help them? After all, the first book became a bibliographic rarity.

I tried to fill this gap in this third book. It consists of two chapters. The first chapter sets out the foundations of an interdisciplinary general economic theory, on which I have been working for nearly thirty years and still continue this work. This chapter is essentially a revised and expanded version of the first book. The analysis of the problem has been brought up to the present day. For the sake of simplicity, part of the mathematical apparatus has been excluded. The list of used literature has been significantly expanded: it includes references both to the fundamental works of the classics of a hundred or two hundred years ago, and to publications of the most recent time. The list of links to foreign publications has been expanded. Many references to non-fundamental journal articles have been excluded from the list; preference is given to domestic and foreign scientific monographs covering certain major problems of economics, sociology, and politics.

The second chapter is, in fact, an illustration of the application of interdisciplinary general economic theory to understanding the modern history of Russia. Unlike natural science, where the correctness of scientific conclusions can be verified by setting up a scientific experiment, in the humanities, the reliability and adequacy of scientific theories can be assessed mainly by how much they are confirmed by social practice and life. This thesis became the leitmotif of the second chapter. It shows how the interdisciplinary general economic theory "works". Moreover, a concept of a new humane society and a fundamental program for its creation in our country are proposed. I am aware of the controversial nature of my views. It is my duty to articulate them with arguments, and not make them believe in them.

Chapter 1. Foundations of interdisciplinary general economic theory

1. 
   On the subject of interdisciplinary general economic theory

For the purposes of this book, first of all, it is important to clarify three questions: What is the subject of interdisciplinary general economic theory? How objective are the results of this study? Are research methods used in natural science and mathematics applicable in interdisciplinary general economic theory?

For many years Soviet textbooks on political economy guided their readers to the definition of Friedrich Engels from Anti-Dühring: "Political economy, in the broadest sense, is the science of the laws governing the production and exchange of material wealth in human society." In his opinion, political economy first examines the specific laws of each separate stage of development of production, and only "at the end of this research can it establish a few, completely general laws applicable to production and exchange in general." Developing this idea, Engels explains that such a theory "has yet to be created," but for now economic science "is limited almost exclusively to the genesis and development of the capitalist mode of production."

So, Engels believed in the possibility of creating a general economic theory, calling it political economy "in the broadest sense." Karl Marx spoke no less optimistically on this issue: “There is no doubt that human production in all forms has certain invariable laws or relations. This identical is quite simple and can be summed up in very few common places. " Marx was convinced that later natural science and the science of man would become "one science."

Alfred Marshall was less optimistic about the prospects for creating a general economic theory. In his opinion, "a unified social science, although desirable, is not achievable."

In Soviet times, only in the course of perestroika was the need to create an integral general economic theory that would reveal the laws common to the entire civilization recognized. As Academician V.A. Medvedev justly noted, modern political economy is already inconceivable without general economic theory as its basis. In the textbook of political economy it was for the first time clearly stated that in the days of Marx, Engels and Lenin, the analysis of general economic laws was not as relevant as in modern conditions, and "to a certain extent it would have been premature." In modern conditions, the disclosure of general economic laws "has become an urgent need, because it allows us to consider social development as a single world process." It was also recognized that "modern science has accumulated a sufficiently large stock of knowledge to identify and formulate these laws." Unfortunately, this awareness of the necessity and possibility of creating a general economic theory was not backed up by concrete deeds. The inertia of thinking of those who at that time made the weather in official social science was too great. It remains too great in the way of thinking of their followers. The verbally proclaimed need for an interdisciplinary approach to solving a new complex problem is actually perceived with difficulty.

Speaking about the importance of knowledge, general economic laws, it is necessary to immediately answer the question whether these laws are really objective, independent of the will and consciousness of people. On the one hand, economic laws are the laws of human activity, and all human activity is a conscious activity. On the other hand, it is argued that economic laws are objective. Is there a contradiction here? “There is, of course, a contradiction here. And where is he not? Another thing is important: both stated positions are correct ”, - wrote academician LI Abalkin. Although the book of the Soviet academician on the economic laws of socialism from today's positions may cause objections, his profound statement of the objective nature of economic laws is absolutely correct. Each person acts quite deliberately. He improves technology, produces and exchanges products. In the course of this activity, he interacts with other people. As a result, a system of social relations and connections arises that no longer depends on the consciousness of people and develops according to its own objective laws.

What is the subject of interdisciplinary general economic theory? Engels' definition of the subject of political economy, cited above, is far from the only one. Many authors have given other definitions focusing on certain features of economic activity. Against the general background, the formulation that Marshall proposed in his fundamental book, first published in 1890, seems very valuable. Defining the essence of the subject of political economy as a science, he writes: “Economic science is concerned with the study of how people exist, develop and what they think about in their everyday life. But the subject of her research is mainly those motives that most strongly and most steadily affect the behavior of a person in the economic sphere of his life. " Thus, Marshall, unlike Engels, directly includes the psychological aspect in the sphere of economic theory. In his opinion, "in search of key motives for the development of human history, we should turn to the study of the forms of labor efforts and human activities." Not everyone agreed with this approach. For example, the French economist Emile Jams believed that "the psychological motivation of human actions does not belong to the subject of economic theory."

It seems that Marshall's definition is as true as Engels's. They do not contradict, but complement each other. Each of them characterizes some one side of social production. Therefore, it is best to combine them. But this is not enough. As will be shown later, the socio-economic system, the direction of its development and those fundamental changes that are commonly called social revolutions depend on the method of labor motivation. Moreover, as the reader will see later, Marshall's view of the determining role of "incentives" is consistent with Marx's contemporary analysis of the concept of "labor" in the first volume of Capital. Based on all that has been said, we can assume that the interdisciplinary general economic theory is the science of labor and the methods of its motivation, of the most general laws of production and distribution of material goods, of socio-economic formations in the history of mankind.

Questions for the interdisciplinary exam "Economic Theory"

1. Subject and method of economic theory

2. Economic resources. Limited economic resources.

3. Types and forms of ownership.

4. Essence, place and role of state property.

5. The main features of a market economy. Market functions.

6. Demand. Demand law. Factors affecting demand.

7. Offer. Supply law. Factors influencing the offer.

8. Market equilibrium and its violation.

9. The essence and functions of money, their types.

10. Product and its properties: utility and price.

11. Competition: essence and methods.

12. Antimonopoly policy of the state.

13. Socio-economic concept of the enterprise.

14. The land market and its features.

15. Labor market. Supply and demand in the labor market.

16. Capital market and its features. The main forms of physical capital. Physical and moral deterioration of fixed capital.

17. Economic risks and risk uncertainty

18. Main macroeconomic indicators.

19. Gross national product and methods of its calculation. Nominal, real and potential GNP.

20. National wealth, sectoral and sectoral structure of the national economy.

21. Unemployment: essence, types, consequences. Natural unemployment rate.

22. Inflation: essence, reasons, types. Methods for measuring inflation.

23. Investments: concept, types, sources of financing.

24. Tax system and its elements.

25. State budget: principles of construction, income and expenses.

26. Budget deficit: types and methods of financing.

27. Public debt.

28. Credit: essence, functions, sources. Loan types.

29. Modern banking and credit system. Central bank and its functions.

30. Economic growth: essence, types, factors.

31. Social policy. Income and employment policy.

Questions for the interdisciplinary exam in the specialty "Organization Management"

1. Concept and basic elements of the organization. External and internal environment of the organization.

2. The nature of managerial work and the role of the manager in the organization. Requirements for the professional competence of managers.

3. Basic theories and concepts of the scientific and administrative school of management.

4. Basic theories and concepts of the school of human relations and behavioral sciences.

5. Process, system and situational approaches to management.

7. The main tasks and components of the organization as a general function of management.

10. Essence and classification of motivational theories.

11. The concept and characteristics of the main types of organizational structures of management.

12. Principles of management. Evolution of scientific understanding of management principles.

13. The concept and content of management methods.

14. Concept and classification of management decisions.

15. Requirements for management decisions.

16. The process of developing, making and implementing management decisions.

17. The concept of communication in management. The content of the communication process.

18. Concept and characteristics of organizational culture. Factors that determine the culture of the organization.

19. Managing the process of adaptation of a person and an organization.

20. The nature and types of conflicts in the organization. Phases of the development of the conflict.

21. Causes of conflicts in the organization and methods of their resolution.

22. The concept and content of power. The sources of power in the organization.

23. The concept and characteristics of the main styles of management.

24. The managerial grid of R. Blake and J. Mouton (GRID). Characteristics of the main and additional (types) management styles.

26. The structure of strategic management in the management system of the organization.

27. Reference (basic) strategies for the development of the organization.

28. Strategic business units. The main approaches to the formation of the product portfolio of the enterprise.

29. Business environment of the organization. Strategic groups of competitors and business partners.

30. Factors and indicators of the organization's competitiveness, assessment of its competitive positions.

31. Organization as a subject and object of management. Basic parameters of a highly effective organization.

32. Personality in organizational behavior. Learning. Principles and types of learning.

33. The essence and significance of perception. Attribution, errors of perception. Impression management.

34. The nature of the installation. Types, functions, change of attitude, its importance in management activities.

35. Comparative analysis of various theories of motivation.

36. Factors of group behavior. Schechter's research. Cohesion and efficiency of the group.

37. Conflicts, typology, causes. Conflict Management.

38. The concept of leadership, approaches, styles. Situational leadership.

39. Stress and stressors, causes of stress. Organizational and personal ways to manage stress.

40. Business negotiations, types, principles, stages of the negotiation process. Negotiation tactics.

41. Recruitment, selection and recruitment of personnel.

42. Personnel policy of the organization.

43. The personnel management system, its main subsystems.

44. Objectives and functions of the personnel management system.

45. Certification of personnel, the main stages. Analysis of certification results.

46. ​​Career: concepts and stages, types of business career. Business career planning.

47. Adaptation of personnel, its directions. Adaptation control technology.

48. Personnel training: personnel training, professional development and retraining of personnel.

49. Modern factors of motivation of the organization's personnel. Incentive system, basic forms, functions.

50. Evaluation of the activities of the personnel service.

51. Mission and vision of the organization. Building a tree of organizational goals. Basic requirements for goals.

52. The main directions and tools for analyzing the external environment of the organization.

53. Analysis of the driving forces of competition and the key success factors in the industry.

54. Concepts of the life cycle of the industry and the life cycle of the product.

55. The main directions and tools for analyzing the internal environment of the organization.

56. The concept of key competencies of the organization. Methodology for conducting a SWOT analysis.

57. Competitiveness of goods: the essence of the concept and calculation method.

58. Financial management as a management system.

59. The system of indicators of accounting and reporting used in financial management.

60. Mechanism for developing a financial plan: stages, sections; plan and budget.

61. Investment management: goals, objectives, investment conditions.

62. Choosing a strategy for financing current assets.

63. Inventory management of the enterprise and their optimization.

64. Fundamentals of budgeting. Features of the formation of the capital investment budget.

65. Management of accounts receivable.

66. Formation of credit policy: types, stages of development.

67. Calculation of the break-even point. The threshold of profitability and the margin of financial strength.

68. The concept of entrepreneurship and the main features of entrepreneurial activity.

69. Types of entrepreneurial activity.

The subject and method of economic theory

the term "economics":

· The entire national economy of the country or its part, including branches and certain types of material production and non-production sphere (industry, agriculture, transport, construction, housing and communal services, etc.).

Any science should have its own item(what is being researched) and the method of research (how is being researched)

The subject of economic theory as a science in the modern sense was not immediately determined and was the result of a long historical development. In the course of the development of economic theory as a science, views on its subject also changed, and here, with a certain degree of conventionality, three main stages (periods) can be distinguished:

· Economy - as a set of knowledge on the organization of the economy;

· Political economy - as a reflection of the emergence of systematized knowledge about the essence, goals and objectives of the economic system;

· Economics - as a modern stage in the evolutionary development of economic science, taking into account changes in research methodology and approaches to the analysis of economic processes and phenomena. The focus is on the problems of people using limited resources for the production of goods and services in order to satisfy their needs.

Thus, in general, the subject of economic theory is the activities of people who use limited resources to produce goods and services in order to satisfy their needs.

Method there is a set of specific techniques, methods and principles, with the help of which the ways of solving the assigned tasks are determined.

In the system of methods used in economic science, there are general (philosophical, ideological), general scientific and private methods.

In economic theory, there are two opposite philosophical methods- metaphysical (considers all phenomena in isolation, in a state of immutability) and dialectical. The dialectical method allows you to more accurately reflect reality, because:

· He proceeds from the fact that in nature and society all phenomena are in constant development, change;

· He proceeds from the fact that development goes from simple to complex, from lower forms to higher;

He takes into account that the driving force of development is the unity and struggle of opposites, the contradictions of certain phenomena (for example, in the economy - the contradiction between production and consumption, the contradiction of interests)

General scientific methods include the method of scientific abstraction, analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, the unity of historical and logical approaches, qualitative and quantitative analysis, systems approach.

scientific abstraction method They act as theoretical expressions of the real sides of the economy (profit, price, goods, money, wages). Taken together, economic categories form a conceptual apparatus. Further knowledge is aimed at studying the relationship of economic phenomena.

analysis and synthesis... Analysis is the dismemberment of the phenomenon under study into its constituent elements and a detailed study of each of them separately, clarification of its place and role within the whole. Synthesis is a method inverse to analysis, with its help, the dismembered and analyzed elements are combined into a single whole, the internal connection between the elements is revealed, their interaction is clarified, and as a result a holistic idea of ​​a particular phenomenon is recreated.

induction and deduction... Induction is a movement from the particular to the general (accumulation, systematization and generalization of facts in order to formulate theories, provisions, principles). Deduction is a movement from the general to the particular. Although induction and deduction are opposite ways of studying economic phenomena, it is difficult to separate them in the process of cognition.

unity historical and logical approaches... Its significance lies in the fact that it allows not only to find out the origin of the system and its elements, but also to substantiate development trends, its stages

qualitative and quantitative analysis... Many economic processes and phenomena develop on the basis of gradual quantitative changes. When further quantitative changes become impossible within the existing quality, they presuppose a qualitative change.

In a group private receptions distinguish graphic, statistical (for example, correlation analysis), mathematical methods (for example, linear and dynamic programming), modeling (including using computer technology), comparative analysis, practical experiment.