A group of chrome ore deposits in Zimbabwe. Mining activities in the Republic of Zimbabwe. Mass media

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News

• 27.03.2019
  According to the Ministry of Mines of Zimbabwe, exploration of diamond deposits has begun in the Mwenzi and Chivi districts (Masvingo province). Exploration company specialists will focus their efforts on identifying new alluvial deposits and kimberlites. The research will be carried out using aircraft and helicopters equipped with the latest data collection equipment. The country's government plans to receive about one billion dollars a year in profit from the diamond industry for four years.
  
  
• 12.03.2019
  Zimbabwean authorities intend to repeal the previously in force law on the control of local investors over diamond and platinum projects in order to increase the flow of foreign investment into the country's mining sector. Representatives of the Ministry of Mines and the Ministry of Finance of Zimbabwe have already made corresponding statements. Now amendments to the legislation must be approved by parliament.
  
  
• 12.03.2018
  Following negotiations between representatives of Russia and Zimbabwe, which took place recently in Moscow, the parties decided to continue cooperation in the exploration of the Darwendale platinum deposits. The program was launched in 2014, and its implementation will create one of the world's largest platinum mining projects. Once it reaches full capacity, it will produce about eight hundred and sixty thousand ounces of platinum group metals annually.
  
  
• 04.03.2018
  The Masvingo Regional Ministry in Zimbabwe has announced the discovery of large new diamond deposits that have already attracted the attention of investors. We are talking about kimberlite pipes located in the area from the Sese region to the Mandiva region. The Zimbabwean authorities have not yet provided data on the estimated reserves of new kimberlites.
  
  
• 09.02.2018
  De Beers first began geological exploration for diamonds in Zimbabwe in 1993. But then she abandoned her license areas in Marange and left the country due to the futility of working there. In connection with the change of power in the country and the new government’s changed attitude towards the state’s economy in general and the admission of foreign investors into it in particular, De Beers is once again showing interest in geological exploration work in Zimbabwe as part of its program to expand the search for diamonds in South Africa .
  
  
• 10.01.2018
  At the end of last year, the volume of gold mined in Zimbabwe amounted to almost twenty-five tons, which is eighteen percent higher than the level of production a year earlier. The gold mining development program adopted by the Zimbabwean authorities had an undeniable impact on the increase in production of the precious metal in the country. Its implementation allowed small companies to take out loans to modernize their production and purchase new equipment.
  
  
• 22.12.2017
  The authorities of the Zimbabwean city of Mutare have allocated fifty-five hectares of land for the construction of a diamond center. The implementation of this large-scale project will be led by the state-owned Zimbabwe Diamond Company (ZCDC). Thus, the country's authorities intend to transform Zimbabwe's diamond sector from mining to processing and take a significant position in the production of diamonds on the world market. At the beginning of 2018, the first stage of construction of the diamond center will begin, in which eighteen million dollars will be invested.
  
  
• 08.12.2017
  The recently replaced leadership of Zimbabwe introduced changes to legislation to protect the interests of the country's indigenous population, opening the economy to foreign investment. The previous president of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, who defended the interests of the indigenous population, was forced to resign. The new legislation will not affect diamond and platinum mining, where the ratio of shares of local miners and foreign mining companies will continue to prevail in favor of the indigenous population.
  
  
• 27.06.2017
  Zimbabwean authorities have purchased new equipment for the state-owned diamond mining company. This factor should influence the increase in diamond production in the country, which is planned to reach two and a half million carats of precious stones in 2017. Since the beginning of the year, Zimbabwe has produced more than a million carats of rough diamonds.
  
  
• 23.03.2017
  The Zimbabwean government is considering establishing direct trade in diamonds with India without the participation of intermediaries. According to stakeholders, such cooperation will contribute to the development of the diamond industry in both Zimbabwe and India. In addition, Zimbabwe has expressed interest in attracting Indian specialists to enhance the skills of the Zimbabwean diamond industry.
  
  

General information

Most of Zimbabwe's territory is located at an altitude of 1000-1500 m within the vast Precambrian basement plateaus of Mashona and Matabele, which step down to the high stratified sandy plains of the middle reaches of the Zambezi River (in the north) and the interfluve of the Limpopo and Sabi (in the south). The country's highest point is Mount Inyangani (2592 m) in the Inyanga Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe.

Platinoids and chromites, for which Zimbabwe ranks third in the world. There are also numerous deposits of iron ores, gold, rare metals, copper, nickel, cobalt, bauxite, coal and precious stones (diamonds, rubies, emeralds).

The central part of Zimbabwe is an open plateau with altitudes of 1100-1850 m above sea level. Almost all the best agricultural land and most cities are located in higher areas, characterized by a more equable climate with abundant rainfall and fertile land. The peripheral regions of the country, except one in the east and another along the border with Botswana in the west, are predominantly flat: in the north - the Zambezi River basin, in the south - the Limpopo River basin and in the southeast - the Sabie River basin. The lowest part of the country, characterized by the hottest climate, is located in the southeast, in the basins of the Sabie and its tributary, the Runde, and in the basin of the Mwenezi River, a tributary of the Limpopo. Rivers, as a rule, have rapids and low water. Many of them dry out during the dry season. Located north of Mutare, the Eastern Highlands reaches an altitude of 2592 m above sea level. (Mount Inyangani, the highest point of Zimbabwe), and in the Chimanimani mountains, located south of Mutare along the border with Mozambique, the peak of Binga reaches 2436 m above sea level. The country's main watershed crosses the plateau from southwest to northeast and separates the catchments of the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers, which empty into the Indian Ocean. In Zimbabwe there is one large Kariba reservoir on the Zambezi river along the border with Zambia, and many small ones - Kyle on the river. Mtilikwe, Robertson and McIlwain on the Gwebi River, Shangani-Tiyabenzi on the Tiyabenzi River, etc. In the north-east of the country on the Zambezi River there is the famous Victoria Falls, 107 m high and approx. 1500 m.

Unique deposits include deposits with manganese ore reserves of more than 1 billion tons, large deposits with reserves of hundreds of millions of tons, and small deposits with reserves of tens of millions of tons.

MINING AND PRODUCTION. Production of marketable manganese ores in 1996 amounted to 21.8 million tons. The seven main producers of manganese raw materials include countries that are the main holders of reserves: China (21.6% of world production), South Africa (15%), Ukraine (14%) , Brazil (10.1%), Australia (9.7%), Gabon (9.2%), India (7.8%). China, despite the low quality of natural ores, has held the lead in the production of commercial ore since 1993. The production of manganese alloys uses a mixture of ores mined in China with high-quality raw materials imported from Australia, Gabon and South Africa. South Africa operates the Mamatwan, Wessels and Nchwaning mines. Almost all products (98%) are metallurgical grade ores (40–52% Mn). In Ukraine in 1992–1998. There was a decline in the production of commercial manganese ores. The main reasons for the decline are energy difficulties and the loss of traditional sales markets in the CIS countries and Eastern Europe. The fields of the Nikopol basin and the Tavrichesky field are being developed. There are 12 mines, three of which are underground.

In geosynclinal conditions, the main concentration of manganese occurred at an early stage, when sedimentary ores accumulated in coastal basins. The middle and late stages of the geosynclinal cycle are not productive for manganese. At the platform stage, manganese deposits of the sedimentary group and weathering were formed.

The facies conditions for the formation of sedimentary manganese ores resemble the conditions for the deposition of iron ores. There is zoning in the distribution of manganese ores: primary oxide ores are deposited in the coastal zone among sediments of sandy-silty-clayey composition; As one moves away from the coast, oxide ores are gradually replaced by carbonate ores (rhodochrosite, manganocalcite, calcium rhodochrosite), associated with clays, siliceous clays and opoka.

Metamorphosed deposits arose as a result of multi-stage regional metamorphism. They are known to be widely distributed in India. At a low stage of metamorphism, manganese oxides and possibly carbonates were transformed into braunites, and siliceous rocks into quartzites. At the middle stages of metamorphism, manganese silicates arose, and partial recrystallization of braunite occurred.

Manganese deposits were formed in various eras of the development of the earth's crust, from the Precambrian to the Cenozoic, and iron-manganese nodules accumulate at the bottom of the World Ocean even today. IN Precambrian metallogenic era powerful geosynclinal formations were formed, characterized in some cases by highly productive manganese-bearing strata (gondites in India, manganese-bearing ferruginous quartzites in Brazil, etc.). Significant reserves of manganese deposits of Precambrian age are known in Ghana (Nsuta-Dagwin deposit), and large ones in South Africa (southeastern part of the Kalahari Desert).

For early Paleozoic era manganese is of little character. Relatively small industrial deposits of manganese of this age are known in China, the USA and eastern regions of Russia. In China, the largest of them is the Shanwutu field, located in Hunan province. In Russia, manganese deposits are known in the Kuznetsk Alatau, as well as in the Far East (Lesser Khingan).

Late Paleozoic era for manganese has relatively little practical significance. The share of manganese ore deposits of this age in world reserves and production is small. Small-scale deposits are known in Western Europe, North Africa, Southeast Asia, as well as in the CIS. The largest deposits in terms of reserves have been explored in Central Kazakhstan - Dzhezdinskoye and Ushkatyn-III. At the Ushkatyn-III deposit, 14 manganese and 8 iron ore bodies were identified. Reserves have been estimated in four ore bodies. The average Mn content is 26.5%. The main ore minerals in primary ores are hausmannite, braunite and hematite, in secondary ores - psilomelane, pyromorphite and manganite.

IN Mesozoic era Manganese ore occurrences were formed in connection with Late Cretaceous (Transcaucasia, Transbaikalia) and Jurassic (coastal ranges of North America, New Zealand) volcanism. Manganese deposits of this age were also of little practical importance. The situation changed dramatically with the discovery of the large Groot Island deposit in Australia in the late 1960s.

Cenozoic era is distinguished by the unique accumulation of manganese ores on the southern edge of the East European Platform (Nikopol basin, Chiaturskoye, Mangyshlakskoye and other deposits). During this era, the large Obrochishte deposit in Bulgaria was formed, as well as Moanda in Gabon. Ore-bearing deposits in all these deposits are sandy-clayey deposits, in which ore-forming minerals are present in the form of nodules, oolites, nodules and earthy accumulations. Relatively small deposits of Tertiary manganese ores form the Ural manganese ore basin, covering the eastern slope of the Ural ridge. It extends in the submeridional direction for almost 150 km. At these deposits, the ore horizon is confined to the base of the Tertiary strata and includes 1–2 layers of manganese ores 1–3 m thick.

. Industrial deposits of manganese ores are represented by: 1) sedimentary, 2) volcanogenic-sedimentary, 3) weathering and 4) metamorphogenic types.

Sedimentary deposits are of great economic importance. They contain about 80% of all world reserves of manganese ores. The largest deposits were formed in coastal-marine and lagoonal Oligocene basins, concentrated mainly within the Paratethys. These are the Nikopol basin in Ukraine, the Chiaturskoye field in Georgia, the Mangyshlakskoye field in Kazakhstan, Obrochishte in Bulgaria, etc.

The most typical representative of this type is Nikolsky manganese ore basin. It includes Nikopolskoe And Bolshetokmakskoe deposits and a number of ore-bearing areas stretched along the banks of the Dnieper and Ingulets in the area of ​​​​the cities of Nikopol and Zaporozhye in the form of a strip 250 km long and up to 5 km wide (Fig. 2). The mature ore layer with an average thickness of 1.5–2.5 m lies at the base of the terrigenous Oligocene strata at a depth of 10 to 100 m. It is a sandy-clayey member with the inclusion of manganese nodules, lenses and nodules, and interlayers of ore matter. The ratio of ore and non-ore components varies vertically and laterally. The amount of manganese ores contained in the clay-siltstone mass reaches 50% by weight, and the average Mn content is 15–25%.

Manganese ore deposits lie with erosion on the underlying rocks of the Upper Eocene, represented by silts, carbonaceous clays and sands, or on crystalline basement rocks and their weathering crusts. Over-ore sediments are Pliocene clays, shell limestones, marls and Quaternary loams with a total thickness of 15 to 80 m.

Within this basin, oxide, mixed (oxide-carbonate) and carbonate manganese ores are distinguished. Among the explored reserves, the ratio of oxide, mixed and carbonate ores is 25:5:70. The Nikopol deposit itself contains 72% of the total reserves of oxide ores (pyrolusite, manganite, psilomelane, vernadite) of Ukraine, and the Bolshetokmak deposit is dominated by carbonate manganese ores (rhodochrosite, manganocalcite). The manganese content in carbonate ores is 10–30% (average 21%), CaO 3–13%, SiO 2 10–50%. Ores are difficult to process. In oxide ores, the average content of Mn is 28.2%, Fe – 2–3%, P – 0.25%, SiO 2 – about 30%. They are easily enriched by simple gravitational methods. Mixed ores contain on average about 25% Mn. Phosphorous ores predominate. Low-phosphorus varieties, found in zones of oxide and mixed ores in the form of bodies with complex contours, make up about 4% of the total reserves. The development of individual areas in the Nikopol basin is carried out by open and partially underground methods.

Ferromanganese nodules of the ocean floor. They were first discovered at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean by an expedition on the Challenger ship 120 years ago. The thickness of ferromanganese crusts on basalts and tuff breccias varies from several millimeters to 10–15 cm. The sizes of nodules range from 1 mm to 1 m in diameter, most often nodules 3–7 cm in diameter are found. Morphological types of nodules are spherical, lozenge-shaped, ellipsoidal, plate-shaped, nodule-shaped, cluster-shaped. Japan and the USA, which do not have large deposits of manganese, extract iron-manganese nodules from the bottom of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans at depths of up to 5 km. The nodules contain (%): Mn 25–30; Fe 10–12; Ni 1–2; Co 0.3–1.5 and Cu 1–1.5.

Volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits are confined to areas of intense underwater volcanism, characterized by the accumulation of lavas and tuffs with a subordinate amount of sedimentary rocks and ores. They are characterized by a close relationship with siliceous (jasper, tuff), carbonate (limestone, dolomite) and ferruginous (magnetite-hematite) rocks and ores. The ores were formed at the early stage of the geosynclinal stage in eugeosynclinal conditions. Fe, Mn, SiO 2 , Cu, Zn, Ba, Pb and other components were supplied by post-volcanic submarine exhalations and hydrotherms. Volcanogenic-sedimentary deposits are usually characterized by low quality ores and are small in scale. Ore bodies occur in the form of irregular, rapidly wedging out layers, lenses, and lentils. They are composed predominantly of manganese and iron carbonates. Deposits of this group are distinguished by the brunite-hausmannite composition of primary ores and psilomelane-vernadite ores in weathering crusts. The thickness of ore bodies is usually 1–10 m, their content of main components (%): Mn 40–55; SiO 2 less than 10; P 0.03–0.06.

This type includes the deposits of the Atasu and Dzhezdinsky regions of Central Kazakhstan, and in Russia the deposits of the Primagnitogorsk group, the Ir-Niliyskoye in Priokhotye, associated with the spilite-keratophyre-siliceous formation, as well as the deposits of the Salair Ridge, confined to the pophyry-siliceous formation.

Weathering deposits. As a result of the manifestation of weathering processes in the hypergenesis zone, intensive decomposition of manganese ores and manganese-containing rocks occurs with the transition of divalent manganese to the tetravalent form. Thus, rich clusters in the form of manganese hats are formed. Deposits of this genetic type are distributed mainly in India, Brazil, Canada, Venezuela, Gabon, South Africa, Australia, and Russia. The oxidation of rhodochrosite, manganocalcite, rhodonite and manganite produces loose, rich oxide ores consisting of pyrolusite, psilomelane and vernadite.

In India, rich deposits of manganese ores formed in the weathering crusts (manganese caps) of gondites and codurites of Proterozoic age are of industrial importance. The content of the main components in the ores is (%): Mn 30–50; SiO 2 up to 12; Fe up to 14, P up to 0.2, sometimes up to 2. They are distributed at depths of 10–70 m. The largest deposits have been identified in the central and southern states of India (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Orissa, etc.).

In supergene ores formed from manganese-containing dolomites, the concentration of Mn is 30–53%, SiO 2 and Fe up to 3%, P up to 0.1%. They, in contrast to ores formed from silicate rocks, are characterized by a low content of SiO 2 and Fe.

Metamorphogenic deposits are formed mainly during regional, less often during contact metamorphism of sedimentary ores and manganese-containing rocks. In the process of intense regional metamorphism, primary manganese oxides and carbonates are subsequently completely transformed into manganese silicates - rhodonite, bustamite, manganese garnets in close intergrowth with each other. Examples of deposits of this type are the Karsakpai and Atasu groups of fields in Kazakhstan, as well as some deposits in India and Brazil. Among metamorphogenic deposits, two formations are distinguished according to the degree of metamorphism: brownite-hausmanite And manganese silicate.

Deposits of the braunite-hausmanite formation are formed as a result of relatively weak progressive metamorphism of primary ores composed of manganese hydroxides and oxides. This group includes numerous deposits in India, confined to the deposits of the Lower and Middle Paleozoic. These are layers and lenses of oxide manganese ores that occur in conformity with weakly metamorphosed host rocks. Often, ore deposits along with the surrounding rocks are dislocated. The length of ore bodies ranges from several tens and hundreds of meters to 2–3 km, their thickness ranges from 1 to 15 m or more. The main ore minerals are braunite, hollandite, and less commonly bixbite and manganite. The most important deposits are Panch Mahal, Baroda, Ukwa, Keopjari and Singbhume.

Deposits of manganese-silicate formation common in India and Brazil. In India, they are associated exclusively with Archean formations - gondites and codurites. Gondites are composed of spessartine, quartz and rhodonite, while condurites consist of potassium feldspar, manganese-containing garnet and apatite. The length of ore bodies is 3–8 km or more, thickness from 3 to 60 m. The Mn content in them varies from 10 to 21%, and in the weathering zone (manganese caps) increases to 30–50%. The largest deposits are located in the states of Andhra Pradesh (Kudur, Tarbhar deposits), Madhya Pradesh (Ramrara, Stapatar) and Maharashtra (Buzurg, Dongri, etc.). Gondites and Codurites are not currently being mined.

Lecture 3. CHROME DEPOSITS

Chromium was discovered in 1797 by the French chemist L. Vauquelin in the mineral crocoite - Pb(CrO4). In Russia, chromium ores were first discovered in the Urals in 1799. At the beginning of the 19th century. they were used only as a refractory material for lining metallurgical furnaces, producing paints and leather tanning agents.

GEOCHEMISTRY. Clarke chromium in the earth's crust is 8.3·10 -3%. Its average content in various igneous rocks ranges from 0.2% in ultrabasic (peridotites) to 0.02% in basic (basalts), amounting to thousandths of a percent in granites. Chromium is a typical lithophile element.

Chromium, along with iron, titanium, nickel, vanadium and manganese, belongs to the same geochemical family. There are four isotopes known in nature: 50 Cr, 52 Cr, 53 Cr and 54 Cr, of which 52 Cr is the most common. Chromium has two valencies - Cr 3+ and Cr 6+. Trivalent chromium compounds are the most stable and widespread. The trivalent chromium atom, on the one hand, forms oxides, and on the other, due to the similarity of its ions with the ions of Al, Mg, Fe 2+ and Fe 3+, it forms complex compounds of these metals, which are isolated at the high-temperature magmatic stage of the endogenous process during differentiation basaltic magma. Under exogenous conditions, chromium, like iron, migrates in the form of suspensions. The most mobile form in nature is chromate.

MINERALOGY. About 25 minerals containing chromium are known. The industrial types are chrome spinels (“chromites”), which have the general formula (Mg,Fe)O·(Cr,Al,Fe) 2 O 3 . chromite composition is variable (%): Cr 2 O 3 18–65; MgO up to 16; FeO up to 18; Fe 2 O 3 up to 30; Al 2 O 3 to 33. Oxides of Ti, Mn, V, Ni, Co, etc. are also present. They are of main industrial importance magnochromite(Mg,Fe)Cr 2 O 4 (Cr 2 O 3 content 50–65%), chrompicotite(Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al) 2 O 4 (Cr 2 O 3 35–55%) and aluminum chromite(Fe,Mg)(Cr,Al) 2 O 4 (Cr 2 O 3 35–50%). In addition, chromium is part of a number of other minerals - chrome mica (fuchsite), chrome vesuvian, chrome diopside, chrome garnet (uvarovite), chrome tourmaline, chrome chlorite, etc. These minerals often accompany ores, but do not have independent industrial significance.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION. The main use of chromites is in metallurgy (65% of world production), refractory (18%) and chemical (17%) industries. The addition of ferrochrome (65–70% Cr, 5–7% C, the rest Fe) or charge chromium (54% Cr, 6–7% C, the rest Fe) to steels increases their toughness, hardness and anti-corrosion properties.

The requirements of different industries for the quality of ores are different. The most stringent requirements are imposed by the metallurgical industry, for which only ores containing at least 37–40% Cr 2 O 4 with a Cr 2 O 3:FeO ratio > 2.5 are suitable. the most valuable are magnochromite ores (Cr 2 O 3:FeO ratio = 3–4 or more), while even massive and rich chromium picotite and especially aluminochromite ores are less valuable due to their high iron content (Cr 2 O 3 :FeO = 1.8–2). The refractory and chemical industries use lower quality ores (Cr 2 O 3 content - 32–35%), in which the Cr 2 O 3:FeO ratio can be lower than 2.

RESOURCES AND RESERVES. Chromite ore resources have been identified in 36 countries and amount to 15.5 billion tons. The bulk of them are concentrated in South Africa (78%). The share of Russian resources is 2%.

Confirmed reserves of chromite ores have been explored in 29 countries and amount to 3.9 billion tons. They are distributed as follows: South Africa 80.5%, Kazakhstan 8.3%, Zimbabwe 3.4%, Russia 0.13%. About 300 deposits of chromite ores have been explored in the world. Stratiform deposits account for 87.5% of proven reserves. Most of them are confined to deep horizons of deposits. Chromite reserves have been explored primarily for underground mining in the fields of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Turkey, Russia and Kazakhstan, and for open-pit mining in the fields of Finland, Brazil, India, Iraq, Pakistan, the Philippines, the USA and other countries.

Unique deposits include deposits of chromite ores with reserves of hundreds of millions of tons, large ones - tens of millions of tons, and small ones - a few million tons.

MINING AND PRODUCTION. Currently, almost 90% of the production of commercial chromite ore is concentrated in six countries: South Africa - 44.8%, India - 12.2%, Kazakhstan - 9.8%, Turkey - 9.4%, Zimbabwe - 6.2%, Finland – 5.2%. Russia's share is about 1%. The global production of commercial chromite ore is about 11.2 million tons. Chromite is mainly mined underground in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Turkey, Albania, Russia and Kazakhstan. The largest mining and processing enterprises with a capacity of up to 1 million tons or more include: Donskoy GOK in Kazakhstan, the Campo Formoso ore complex in the state of Bahia in Brazil, the Kemi GOK in Finland and the South African mines Winterveld Krundal and Vonderkop in the Western chromite belt (Rustenburg region ).

METALLOGENY AND AGES OF ORE FORMATION. In the general cycle of geological development, chromite deposits arose at the geosynclinal stage, as well as at the stage of platform activation. At the early stage of the geosynclinal stage, magmatic deposits were formed, among which the most characteristic are late magmatic deposits associated with massifs of hyperbasites (dunites, harzburgites). At the stage of platform activation, massifs of layered rocks of the gabbro-norite formation were formed, for which early magmatic chromite deposits are typical.

Chromite-bearing ultrabasic rocks form several belts: 1) the submeridional belt of Hercynian and Caledonian intrusions of peridotites and dunites in the Urals; 2) Mediterranean belt of Cretaceous and Tertiary intrusions of hypermafic rocks, stretching from the Balkans through Turkey and further to India; 3) a belt of basic and ultrabasic rocks, parallel to the East African Rift System, traced in the territory of South Africa (Bushveld Massif) and Zimbabwe (Great Dyke).

Chromite deposits arose in various geological eras, from the early Precambrian to the Tertiary period. Precambrian era– outstanding for the formation of chromite ore deposits. According to N.A. Bykhover, more than 90% of the total chromite reserves were formed in this era. The largest deposits are concentrated in South Africa, mainly in the Transvaal. There are two chromite-bearing belts here – the Lydenburg and Rustenburg. Numerous deposits exist in Zimbabwe, where they are confined to the Great Dyke. Smaller deposits have been discovered in Sierra Leone, the Malagasy Republic, the USA, Brazil, and Finland.

Early Paleozoic era was not very productive for the formation of chromite ores. Commercial deposits of this age are unknown. Small deposits genetically linked to Early Caledonian ultramafic intrusions have been identified in the Trondheim area in Norway. The ores contain on average 25–35% chromium oxide.

Late Paleozoic era- second in importance after the Precambrian. In Russia, chromite deposits of this age form the basis of the raw material base and play a decisive role in the reserves and production of this mineral. Of particular interest are the numerous chromite deposits associated with the Kempirsay ultrabasic massif of the Urals. In non-CIS countries, manifestations of chromite bearing of this age are rare and usually in the form of small accumulations, of little interest in practical terms. Small deposits of chromite are widespread in eastern Australia, where they are associated with Early Hercynian hypermafic rocks.

IN Mesozoic era Industrial deposits of chromite were formed in certain countries of America and Southern Europe. In Cuba, they are located in the belt of Late Cretaceous serpentinized ultramafic rocks, represented by dunites, pyroxenites and anorthosites. Deposits of stock-shaped, lens-shaped and vein-shaped chromites are confined mainly to dunites. The chemical composition of the ores varies widely: the content of Cr 2 O 3 is 22–57%, Fe 9.7–14.4%. Low-grade ores predominate. Numerous relatively small deposits are known in the United States in the states of California and Oregon.

Within Southern Europe, chromite deposits have been identified in Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and Macedonia. In Greece, chromite deposits are usually located in serpentinites close to their contact with limestones. Refractory ores predominate, in which the content of Cr 2 O 3 is 37–42%, Fe 2 O 3 12% and Al 2 O 3 19–25%.

IN Cenozoic era Industrial deposits of chromites were formed only in Asia and Oceania. Numerous deposits are known in several areas of the Mediterranean. In Turkey, the largest fields in terms of reserves and production are the fields of the Guleman group. Here chromite ores are confined to serpentinized lopolite. Massive ores dominate with the content of Cr 2 O 3 50–52%, Fe 2 O 3 10–12%, Al 2 O 3 13–14% and SiO 2 2–3%. One of the leading places in the world in the mining of refractory chromites belongs to the Philippines. Numerous deposits are known on almost all islands, but the largest are located on the island. Luzon.

GENETIC TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL DEPOSITS. Industrial chromium deposits are represented by two main types: 1) igneous deposits themselves and 2) placers. Actually igneous deposits are divided into early magmatic and late magmatic (hysteromagmatic).

Early magmatic deposits chromium are associated with basaltoids or harzburgite-orthopyroxenite-norite formation. They are represented by layer-like deposits of consistent thickness at the base of stratified intrusive massifs. The dimensions of the latter range from several tens to several thousand square kilometers. Mineralization is characterized by regular layering with gradual transitions from peridotites at the bottom of the massifs to gabbroids and granitoids at the top. The content of Cr 2 O 3 in the ores is relatively high – 38–50%. Early igneous deposits are widely developed in South Africa (Bushveld Massif) and Zimbabwe (Great Dyke).

Bushveld Massif Basic and ultrabasic rocks have the shape of a lopolith, stretching from east to west for 460 km with a width of 250 km (Fig. 3). It penetrated into the strata of Proterozoic quartzites and effusites (Transvaal system) in Proterozoic time. A feature of the internal structure of the massif is its layering (stratification). Some horizons of basic and ultrabasic rocks, even of relatively small thickness (from a few centimeters to a few meters), can be traced along a strike of up to 100–200 km. In the massif from bottom to top of the section, the following sequence of rocks is outlined: 1) norites with a thickness of 350 m (Zakalka zone); 2) norites alternating with peridotites, 1500 m thick (Basal zone); 3) norites with interlayers of pyroxenites and anorthosites with a thickness of about 1000 m (Critical zone); 4) gabbro-norites with a thickness of 3500 m (Main zone); 5) gabbro-diorites with a thickness of 2000 m (Upper zone).

Chromite mineralization is confined to the lower part of the Critical Zone. In the Transvaal, large deposits are concentrated in two ore belts: the Rustenburg in the west and the Lydenburg in the east. The length of these belts is 160 and 112 km, respectively. Within them, up to 25 gently dipping chromite layers with a thickness of 0.2–0.3 to 1.0 m, occasionally up to 4.0 m have been identified. Deposits of disseminated and massive ores have been developed. There are chromites with a nodular texture. The layers of chromite ores are combined into three groups: 1) upper (up to a depth of 30 m), 2) middle (30–75 m) and 3) lower (up to 120 m). Chromites of the lower group of layers contain 42–50% Cr 2 O 3, and the middle and upper groups – 32–46% Cr 2 O 3. Proven reserves of chromite ores in the Bushveld complex amount to 3,100 million tons with an average chromium trioxide content of 40%. In 1995–1998 a revaluation of confirmed reserves of chromite ores was carried out in connection with technological advances that allowed the company to " Chrome Resources (Pty.) Ltd.» start using low-grade chromites from the formation U.G. 2 , previously developed only for platinum group metals. In the Lydenburg Belt the company " Consolidated Metallurgical Industries Ltd» . at the end of 1995, it began open-pit ore mining at the Tuncliffe deposit.

Late magmatic deposits formed at the end of the magmatic process proper and are characterized by their association with hyperbasites. Ore bodies have the form of vein- and lens-shaped bodies with sharp boundaries and bizarre outlines. Sometimes they are intersected by gabbro and dunite dikes. Ores are usually massive. They contain chromium garnet, chromium chlorite and chromium tourmaline. The formation of these deposits was accompanied by tectonic deformations, resulting in the pressing of chromium-containing melts into tectonic cracks and the collapse of rocks and ores. The content of Cr 2 O 3 varies from 15 to 65%, more often it is 50–55%, the ratio of Cr 2 O 3:FeO is from 2 to 4.

Deposits of this subtype have been identified in Russia, Armenia, Turkey, Iran, India, Albania, Sudan and Cuba. In Russia, the largest deposits are concentrated in the southeastern part of the Kempirsay massif in the Southern Urals. Kempirsay massif located within the Uraltau meganticlinorium. It extends in the submeridional direction for 80 km with a width of 10–20 km. In the southeastern part, the massif is a laccolith, expanding to the south, where geophysical work has established a supply channel measuring 3–5 x 10–13 km. Its age, determined from phlogopite from contact-mineralized rocks, is 380–400 million years.

The massif is composed mainly of peridotites (harzburgites) and dunites are exposed only in the southeastern part. More than 160 chromite deposits and ore occurrences are known. They lie at different depths from the surface and gravitate towards the arched uplifts of the intrusion. There are 4 ore fields, of which the most important is the Main (South-Kempirsayskoe). The largest industrial deposits are located here: Almaz-Zhemchuzhina, Molodezhnoe, Millionnoye, Gigant, Komsomolskoye, Geofizicheskoye, Spornoye, etc. The number of ore bodies at each of these deposits varies from one (Molodezhnoe deposit) to 99 (Millionnoye). Their length also varies from several tens of meters to 1500 m, and their thickness from 1–3 to 180 m.

Chromite ores are massive and disseminated, less often nodular. Their contacts with the host ultrabasic rocks are, as a rule, sharp, normal, and less often tectonic. Large and thick ore bodies are characterized by coarse banding caused by the alternation of relatively sparsely disseminated and densely disseminated ores. The content of Cr 2 O 3 varies from 28–35% in sparsely disseminated ores to 58–59% in continuous chromite ores and averages 49.0%. Primary ores consist mainly of olivine and magnochromite. The composition of altered ores is more complex: chromactinolite, uvarovite, serpentine (lizardite, chrysotile), chromium chlorites, brucite, magnetite, hematite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, marcasite, etc. are noted.

Placer deposits do not play a significant role in world reserves (5%) and production (1%) of chromite raw materials. They are formed due to the weathering of bedrock igneous deposits. These include eluvial-deluvial, as well as coastal-marine placers. Eluvial-deluvial formations (deposits such as lateritic weathering crusts) are represented by scattered crystals and fragments of chromite among the loose limonite mass. Ores are easily enriched during the washing process. Similar deposits are known in Russia (Saranovskoye in the Urals), Cuba (Camagüey), and New Caledonia. The largest colluvial chromite placers are confined to the Great Dyke (Zimbabwe), where they are concentrated in transverse valleys. Coastal-marine placers known on the Pacific coast of the USA (Oregon), on the Adriatic coast of Albania, etc. In Oregon, chromite is present in the so-called “black” sands of the modern beach, as well as in the recesses of sea terraces. The length of the ore bodies is 1.5 km, width 0.3–0.4 km, thickness 0.3–12 m. Chromite content 16–53%. The source of the “black” sands is the serpentinized ultramafic rocks of the Coast Range.

Lecture 4. TITANIUM DEPOSITS

BRIEF HISTORICAL INFORMATION. Titanium was discovered by the English chemist W. Gregory in 1791 in ilmenite, and then in 1795 by the German scientist M. Klaproth in rutile (then titanium got its name). In 1910, pure metal was obtained through the reduction of TiCl 4 with sodium. The use of metallic titanium and its alloys has become possible since 1938, when Kroll developed a technological method for the reduction of TiCl 4 with magnesium to obtain titanium and created equipment for its industrial production.

Pure titanium is a bright grayish-silver metal that has the strength of alloy steel but is half the weight. Unlike steel, it is tough and ductile, and therefore lends itself well to mechanical processing (rolling, forging, cutting). Resistant to corrosion, heat-resistant (melting point 1668º C, boiling point – 3260º C).

GEOCHEMISTRY. Clarke of titanium in the earth's crust is 0.45%. Increased concentrations are observed in basic (0.9%) and medium (0.8%) intrusive rocks. Five isotopes of titanium are known: 46 Ti–50 Ti, of which 48 Ti is the most common. Under natural conditions, titanium is tetravalent and is found only in oxygen compounds. Belonging to the “iron family,” titanium is at the same time characterized by distinct lithophilic properties. It tends to be dispersed in magnesian-ferruginous silicates, concentrating in gabbros, hornblendites and pyroxenites, as well as in some alkaline rocks. In the hypergenesis zone, titanium minerals are stable and can form placers. Under conditions of weathering and sedimentation, it has a geochemical affinity with Al 2 O 3 and is concentrated in bauxites of weathering crusts, as well as in marine clayey sediments.

MINERALOGY. Currently, about 70 titanium minerals are known. An even greater number of minerals contain titanium as an impurity. Industrial extraction of titanium is carried out mainly from ilmenite and rutile. Ilmenite FeTiO 3 (Ti content 31.6%). Usually it contains an admixture of Mg and Mn, crystallizes in the trigonal system, and tabular crystals are characteristic. The color of the mineral is black, semi-metallic luster, hardness 5–6, specific gravity 4.7 g/cm 3 . Rutile TiO 2 (Ti 60%), contains impurities of Fe, Ta, Nb, Sn, etc. Crystallizes in the tetragonal system, the crystals are prismatic, columnar, needle-shaped. The color of the mineral is yellow, red, black, the streak is light brown, the luster is diamond and metallic, hardness 6, specific gravity 4.3 g/cm 3 . During complex processing of ores, it is extracted from other titanium-containing minerals: titanomagnetite - Fe 3 O 4 + FeTiO 3, perovskite - CaTiO 3, loparite - (Na,Ce,Ca) (Nb,Ti)O 3. Titanium is also obtained in small quantities from leucoxene and sphene.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION. Titanium is currently used in many industries. Its alloys with small additions of aluminum, chromium, manganese and other metals have high strength, heat resistance, and low density. They are the most important structural materials for critical parts used in “harsh conditions” - at high or very low temperatures, in sea water and in humid sea air.

Titanium and its alloys are used for the manufacture of many parts for aircraft, marine vessels, and also in the chemical industry. Titanium-vanadium alloys are characterized by particular strength, which are used in rocketry and space technology, for example, for the manufacture of high-pressure cylinders, fuel systems for Apollo and Saturn rockets, spacecraft engine housings, etc. Titanium alloys are used in the manufacture of high-speed cutters ( high-speed cutting of metals), titanium white and enamels, for the production of smoke generators, production of sodium hypochlorite NaClO (used to neutralize cyanide-containing wastewater).

Alluvial deposits with a content of at least 20 kg/t in terms of “conventional ilmenite” are qualifying for titanium, and for primary deposits – ores that, during mechanical enrichment, yield an ilmenite concentrate yield of at least 10% or a rutile concentrate of at least 1.5% by weight original ore.

RESOURCES AND RESERVES. Titanium resources have been identified in 48 countries of the world and are estimated at 1.2 billion tons (in terms of titanium dioxide - TiO 2), including about 1 billion tons in ilmenite, the rest - mainly in rutile and anatase. Most of the titanium resources are concentrated in the depths of Australia, India, Canada, China, Norway, the USA, the Republic of Korea, Ukraine and South Africa.

There is no complete statistical information on total titanium reserves. According to SNPP "Aerogeology" Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation world (excluding Russia) confirmed reserves at the beginning of 1997 amounted to about 735 million tons. They are distributed as follows: Asia - 422.3 million tons (57.4%), America - 142.5 million tons (19.4%) , Africa - 72.1 million tons (9.8%), Europe - 60.8 million tons (8.3%), Australia and Oceania - 37.3 million tons (5.1%).

The reserves of primary (magmatic) deposits account for about 69% of the world (excluding Russia), deposits of weathering crusts - 11.5%, placer deposits - 19.5%. The reserves account for more than 82% in ilmenite, 6% in rutile and less than 12% in anatase. Ilmenite-magnetite and ilmenite-hematite ores of primary deposits form the basis of the mineral resource base of the titanium industry in Canada, China and Norway. Deposits of the weathering crust of carbonatites are being developed only in Brazil. In other countries, the main reserves of titanium minerals are concentrated in placers and complex deposits.

Currently, more than 300 deposits of titanium minerals have been identified in the world, including 70 igneous, 10 lateritic and more than 230 placer deposits. Of these, 90 deposits, mostly alluvial, have been explored according to industrial categories.

Based on titanium dioxide reserves, industrial deposits are divided into the following groups: 1) very large (unique) with reserves exceeding 10 million tons; 2) large – 1–10 million tons; 3) medium – from 100 thousand tons to 1 million tons; 4) small – from 50 to 100 thousand tons.

MINING AND PRODUCTION. In 1995–2000 mining of titanium ores and titanium-containing sands was carried out in 12 countries. There were 23 quarries and one mine. Primary deposits were developed in Norway (Tellnes) and Canada (Allard Lake), in China - primary deposit (Panzhihua) and placer deposits, in Brazil - lateritic (Catalan-1) and placer deposits, in other countries - only placer deposits.

Ores and sands extracted from the depths were either enriched to produce ilmenite, rutile, anatase and leucoxene (as well as zircon, monocyte, etc.) concentrates containing up to 45–70% TiO 2, or were subjected to smelting to yield titanium slag (up to 85% TiO 2) and cast iron or processing into synthetic rutile.

The world leaders in the production of concentrates were Australia (51.6% of world production) and Norway (17.3%). The total capacity of enrichment plants in non-CIS countries in 1997 exceeded 5.3 million tons/year and was used at 75–80%. To develop new deposits, factories are being built or designed in Australia, Vietnam, Mozambique and South Africa.

METALLOGENY AND AGES OF ORE FORMATION. Titanium deposits were formed mainly at the early stage of the geosynclinal stage in connection with clearly differentiated intrusions of rocks of the gabbro-pyroxenite-dunite formation. They occur in the form of lopolithic or plate-shaped bodies, confined to zones of deep faults developed in the areas of junction of ancient platforms with Proterozoic and Early Paleozoic folded structures. The zones of activation of ancient platforms are associated with the formation of multiphase plutons of alkaline and ultrabasic composition with loparite, perovskite and titanomagnetite mineralization. During the destruction of ilmenite-rutile- and anatase-containing rocks, lateral, proalluvial and alluvial placers arose.

Titanium deposits were formed in various eras - from the Precambrian to the Cenozoic inclusive. Precambrian era was the most favorable for the formation of large primary deposits of titanomagnetite and ilmenite ores. They are concentrated within ancient platforms or areas of development of Precambrian formations, where they are spatially associated with ultramafic rocks and normal mafic rocks. These intrusive complexes are especially widespread on the African, Canadian and Baltic shields and the Australian platform. The largest deposits are located in South Africa and are confined to the Bushveld complex of rocks of the gabbro-peridotite formation, the absolute age of which is determined to be 1950 ± 100 million years. The complex of basic and ultrabasic rocks of Tanzania is of the same age, with which large deposits of titanomagnetite are also associated. In the USA, in the state of New York in the Adirondack Mountains, the Tegavus deposit is located, which provides about 50% of the ilmenite mined in the country. Numerous Precambrian titanium deposits have been discovered in Canada. The largest of them are Allard Lake, Lake Thio, Mills, Puigelon and others, located in the province of Quebec. In Russia, deposits of titanomagnetite ores are known in Karelia (Pudozhgorskoye, Koykarskoye), within the gabbro belt of the western slope of the Southern Urals (Kusinskoye, Medvedevskoye, Kopanskoye and other deposits).

Early Paleozoic era was unfavorable for the formation of industrial titanium deposits. Relatively small deposits are known in the Urals, Northern Europe and South Africa.

IN Late Paleozoic era A very limited number of industrial deposits have been formed. These include the Yaregskoye field in the Komi Republic. Apatite-nepheline ores of the Khibiny deposit can also become a source for the production of titanium concentrates.

IN Mesozoic era Commercial titanium deposits were practically not formed.

Cenozoic era was marked by the formation of large alluvial and coastal-marine titanium placers. They usually contain significant concentrations of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, magnetite, titanomagnetite and leucoxene, and less commonly monazite and columbite. Placers are especially widespread in India, Australia, the USA and South Africa. In India, the largest placers are concentrated on the Travancore coast in the southwestern part of the Hindustan Peninsula. Along the coast, placers (“black sands”) can be traced in a strip 160 km long, with an average width of 150 m and a thickness of up to 7.5 m. In Australia, coastal marine placers are being developed, stretching in the form of a strip more than 1200 km long from the island. Frasers in Queensland to Sydney (New South Wales). The average content of minerals in the heavy fraction is (%): rutile 20–45, ilmenite 14–50, zircon 26–53, monazite 0.2–2.0. The total reserves of these minerals, calculated from the 16 largest deposits, are estimated at 2.4 million tons, including 750 thousand tons of rutile and 660 thousand tons of ilmenite.

GENETIC TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL DEPOSITS. Among the industrial deposits of titanium, the following are distinguished: 1) igneous, 2) placer, 3) weathering, 4) sedimentary-volcanogenic, 5) metamorphogenic.

Igneous deposits According to the composition of source rocks, they are divided into two classes: 1) associated with basic and ultrabasic massifs and 2) with complexes of alkaline rocks. Large deposits of titanomagnetite ores are widespread within the South African, Canadian, Baltic and Indian shields. Typical deposits are those occurring in the norites of the Bushveld complex. Here, sheet-like ore bodies with a thickness of 0.3–0.6 m can be traced along the strike for many kilometers. They contain 51–60% Fe and 12–20% Ti. In Russia, a typical titanomagnetite deposit associated with gabbro is Kusinskoye, and one associated with pyroxenites among gabbros is Kachkanarskoye.

Kusinskoye field(Southern Urals) lies in a dike-like massif of basic rocks intruded at the contact of carbonate rocks of the Satka formation and granite gneiss. The gabbroic massif hosting the ore bodies is highly differentiated. Among the rocks of the massif, the most widely developed are gabbros (usually banded gabbros), consisting of leucocratic and melanocratic bands; Of subordinate importance are hornblendites and pyroxenites, as well as anorthosites and gabbro-pegmatites.

Most of the ore bodies of the Kusinsky deposit have a vein-like shape and are located in the central part of the ore-bearing belt. The strike of the ore veins corresponds to the general direction of the ore-bearing belt, i.e. approximately northeast (40–50º). The main ore veins can be traced for 2–2.5 km. Their thickness varies from 0.5 to 10 m (average 3.5 m); The veins dip southeast at an angle of 70–80º, in places vertical. The ores are composed of magnetite (60–70%) and ilmenite (20–30%) with minor admixtures of bornite, chalcopyrite, chlorite, pyroxenes, hematite, pyrite, etc. They contain 50–57% Fe, 10–20% TiO 2, 1 –2% Cr 2 O 3, 0.12% S, as well as noticeable amounts of V. Vanadium is associated with magnetite and is present as an isomorphic impurity, and is also part of vanadium-containing magnetite - culsonite.

Placer deposits. Among them, two classes are distinguished: coastal-marine and continental. The main importance is coastal-marine ilmenite-rutile-zircon placers. From modern coastal-marine placers rutile and ilmenite are mined in Australia, India, Sri Lanka, Sierra Leone, Brazil and the USA. The most industrially interesting are the beach placers of Australia in the central part of the east coast, where they can be traced intermittently for more than 75 km. Their width reaches 800 m, the thickness of the productive formation is 1.8 m. The rutile content is 18–20 kg/m 3, ilmenite 15–16 kg/m 3.

Ancient coastal-marine placers are represented by weakly cemented or compacted ore sands of Meso-Cenozoic age. Typical representatives are Sredneprovsky deposits zircon-rutile-ilmenite sands of Ukraine. They were formed due to the erosion of the thick Mesozoic weathering crust of metamorphic rocks of the Ukrainian crystalline shield, subsequent sorting and redeposition of weathering products on the sides of the Dnieper-Donets and Black Sea basins in the Tertiary period.

Continental placers distributed mainly in alluvium, eluvium and proluvia of Quaternary, Paleogene and Lower Cretaceous deposits. Ore bodies of alluvial placers, as a rule, have the form of ribbon-like deposits confined to river valleys. In terms of mineral composition, continental placers are usually polymictic (ilmenite, quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, etc.). Ilmenite grain sizes are 0.1–0.25 mm or more. Their roundness is weak. The ilmenite content in industrial continental placers varies from 20–30 to 200–500 kg/m3.

Weathering deposits. These deposits arise in hot and humid climates during the weathering of gabbro-anorthositic and metamorphic rocks containing high concentrations of ilmenite and rutile. At the same time, grains of ore minerals retain their primary crystal shape (they are not rounded). The thickness of the weathering crust reaches several tens of meters. A typical example would be Stremigorodskoye field, formed during weathering of the gabbro-anorthosite massif in Volyn (Ukraine). The weathering crust here is enriched only with ilmenite, the content of which reaches 300–500 kg/m3. On Kundybaevskoye field in Kazakhstan, formed during the weathering of metamorphic rocks, the weathering crust contains up to 180 kg/m 3 ilmenite and up to 75 kg/m 3 rutile.

Sedimentary-volcanogenic deposits. They are closely related to titanium-bearing volcanic-sedimentary formations and are relatively rare. The most typical representative is the deposit Nizhny Mamon, located in the Voronezh region. The deposit area is composed of sedimentary and volcanic-sedimentary rocks of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, overlying a Precambrian crystalline basement. The deposits of the Devonian Yastrebovsky horizon are productive. Its occurrence depth is 50–70 m. The thickness of volcanic-sedimentary formations varies from 2–3 to 35 m. The largest amount of ilmenite is confined to coarse tuffs, tuffites and tuff sandstones, in which effusive fragments are represented mainly by rocks of basic composition. The cement is magnesium-ferruginous chlorite. The most enriched in ilmenite (sometimes up to 50% of the mass) are coarse clastic varieties of tuffaceous rocks. The sizes of ilmenite grains are, as a rule, 0.25–0.30 mm. The formation of volcanic rocks containing ilmenite apparently occurred in a shallow sea basin as a result of underwater volcanic activity.

Metamorphogenic deposits. Among them, metamorphosed and metamorphic titanium deposits are distinguished.

Metamorphosed deposits arose as a result of the metamorphism of productive sands and their transformation into sandstones and quartzites. They are known in variegated leucoxene-quartz sandstones of the Devonian deposits of Timan. The largest here is Yaregskoye field, representing a buried metamorphosed Devonian placer. Two ore-bearing horizons are developed: the lower one is composed of coarse and coarse-grained quartz sandstones with interlayers of siltstones and mudstones, the upper one is composed of polymictic conglomerates and heterogeneous quartz sands. Ore minerals are represented by semi-rounded leucoxene grains and single ilmenite grains. The best known of the foreign metamorphosed deposits is Robinson Kop in the USA (Virginia). Here, among the Cambrian sandstones, there are lens-shaped bodies enriched in rutile and ilmenite, which together account for up to 50% of the volume of these bodies.

Metamorphic deposits titanium are confined to ancient crystalline schists, gneisses, eclogites and amphibolites. They are formed as a result of the metamorphism of various rocks enriched in titanium. This class includes: the Harward deposit (USA), where Precambrian chlorite shales containing up to 20% rutile are productive; Plumo Hidalgo deposit in Mexico (Precambrian gneisses with rutile content up to 25%); deposits of the Middle Urals (Kuznechikhinskoye), Kola Peninsula, etc.

DEPOSITS AND ORE OPERATIONS IN BELARUS. In Belarus in 1966, a relatively small reserve was discovered Novoselkovskoye field ilmenite-magnetite ores associated with gabbro intrusion. The TiO 2 content in the ores is 4.2–6.0%. According to the Hippriroda Institute (St. Petersburg), 4.06 million tons of TiO 2 are associated with the iron ores of the deposit.

There are five known ore occurrences of titanium and zirconium, confined to the quartz-glauconite sands of the Paleogene: Mikashevichskoe, Zhitkovichskoe, Kobrinskoe, Kovyzhevskoe and Glushkevichskoe. Mikashevichi manifestation gravitates towards the Mikashevichi-Zhitkovichi protrusion of crystalline basement rocks. The zone of fossil placers, 4–5 km wide, extends 23 km in the sublatitudinal direction. Productive sandy horizons of the Kyiv suite lie in the depth range of 45–53 m. The average and maximum contents are, respectively (kg/m3): ilmenite 7.08 and 8.46, zircon – 2.11 and 2.48.

Chrome is a hard metal that has a bluish-white color. In the periodic table of chemical elements it is number 24. The name of the metal means color in Greek. The element began to be called this due to the fact that its compounds have a variety of colors.

It is worth noting that chromium is quite common in nature. Among its priority compounds, it is necessary to highlight chromium iron ore (chromite), as well as the mineral crocoite, which, however, is less significant than chromite.

Chromium mining

It seems very unprofitable to use minerals as the main source for chromium extraction. Therefore, the main raw material from which chromium is obtained is chrome ore.

Often the percentage of chromium in stones is very small, so most of the stones in which this metal is present are precious and are usually used in their entirety.

Chromium was first discovered in ore by a German chemist in the 18th century. This significant event both for chemistry and for humanity as a whole happened in Siberia. It was there that Lehman discovered crocoite, a red lead ore. This ore contains two main elements - lead and chromium.

Experiments on extracting metal from ore were carried out by Leman in St. Petersburg. Thanks to him, chromium is currently extracted from ore in two main ways:

1. Using electrolysis of concentrated aqueous solutions of chromium oxide.
2. Using electrolysis of sulfate.

In the process of both one and the other method, the oxide or sulfate molecule is destroyed in a crucible, in which the original compounds are ignited.

Using Chrome

Under absolutely normal conditions, nothing happens to the metal - it does not oxidize or rust. Due to the fact that the basis of all steels is iron, which reacts actively with oxygen and can rust and oxidize, chromium is added during steel smelting as an alloying element. This makes it possible to significantly increase the anti-corrosion properties of steels.

Siliconothermic chromium is used in the smelting of nichrome - an alloy of chromium and nickel. Thanks to the combination of these two components, the alloy has ductility, hardness and resistance to oxidation.

Compounds of chromium and cobalt are also produced, resulting in an alloy called stellite, which has very high hardness. Molybdenum and tungsten can also be added to this alloy. This alloy is distinguished by its high cost, but it justifies itself. It is used as an element that is fused onto machine parts, work tools and tools in order to significantly increase their resistance to wear.

Chromium compounds are also actively used in the production of decorative coatings as elements that increase corrosion resistance.

Powdered chromium is used as an additive to the bottom layer of dental crowns to increase their strength.

Chromium is also used in jewelry because it is a constituent of uvarovite, a mineral from the garnet group. Uvarovite has a green color, which is achieved precisely by the presence of chromium. The value of such a stone is significantly higher than red one due to its rarity. In addition, uvarovite is slightly harder than standard garnets, which is also an advantage.

Mining of chrome ores

Chromium deposits are located in different countries. However, the largest of them is located in South Africa. This republic is the world leader in chromium reserves. Second place is occupied by Kazakhstan, on whose territory the reserves of explored deposits exceed 350 million tons. Also among the largest metal deposits, it is worth noting the deposits located in Russia, Zimbabwe, and Madagascar. Chromium deposits have been discovered in Turkey, India, Armenia, Brazil, and the Philippines.

Chromium ores in Russia are mainly concentrated in the Urals (Don and Saranovsk).

Since chromium is a metal of the deep rocks of the earth, its deposits are of igneous origin. Thus, chrome ore occurs at considerable depths. In this regard, there is only one possible way to extract them - using mines. In this case, directed explosions are used. Ore is not extracted from a mine in its pure form: other ores and waste rocks also rise to the surface along with it. After this, the chrome ore is separated from impurities using a centrifuge using heavy liquids - ferrosilicon is loaded into the separation drum and it is started. As a result of drum rotation, waste rock, which has significantly less weight, rises to the top, and chrome ore settles at the bottom.

ZIMBABWE, Republic Zimbabwe (Republic of Zimbabwe) is a state in central South Africa. Area 390.2 thousand km2. Population 7.5 million people (1982). The capital is Xapape (formerly Salisbury). Administratively, it is divided into 8 provinces. The official language is English. The currency is the Zimbabwean dollar. Zimbabwe is a member of the Organization of African Unity (1980) and is a participant in the Conference for the Coordination of Economic Development of Independent Countries of Southern Africa (1980).

General characteristics of the farm. Since 1980, the country has experienced economic growth (mainly as a result of the lifting of UN economic sanctions). GDP is over 4 billion dollars (1982). In the structure of GDP, industry accounts for 30% (including 21% - manufacturing), agriculture - about 15%. Key positions in the economy (about 50% of all capital investments) are occupied by foreign private capital from Great Britain (over 300 companies). In the structure of the fuel and energy balance, 71% comes from coal, 17.8% from petroleum products and 11.2% from hydropower (1980). The total length (1981) of railways is about 3.5 thousand km, roads - about 80 thousand km (of which 8.5 thousand km are asphalted). There is an oil pipeline Beira (Mozambique) - Mutare (228 km). The seaports of South Africa (3/4 of cargo traffic, 1981) and Mozambique play an important role in servicing foreign trade transport.

Nature. Most of Zimbabwe's territory is occupied by the gently undulating Matabele plateau (altitude 800-1500 m). On the border with Mozambique there is a mountain range with an absolute elevation of 2596 m (Inyangani). To the north, the plateau descends towards the Zambezi, in the south - towards the Limpopo River.

In the northwest the climate is subequatorial, in the south it is tropical. Annual precipitation ranges from 1200-1400 mm (in the east) to 300-750 mm (in the southwest). The warmest month is October (average temperature 21 - 27°C), the coldest month is July (10-17°C). The largest rivers are the Zambezi and Limpopo; most of the rivers become shallow and dry up during the dry season. A significant part of the territory is occupied by savanna woodlands and desert savannas.

Geological structure. Zimbabwe is located in the southern part of the African Plate. Most of the country's territory is occupied by the Zimbabwe crystalline massif, which includes a granite-gneiss core (craton), framed by sublatitudinal folded belts; Limpopo (in the south) and Zambezi (in the north). The core is composed of Katarchean (3.7-3.8 billion years) granite gneisses of tonalite composition, above which lie folded sedimentary-volcanogenic complexes of the Katarchean greenstone belts (the Sebakvay “system” with an age of more than 3.5 billion years), Lower and Upper Archean ("system" Bulawayo 2.7-2.9 billion years old), broken through by Archean tonalites and main intrusions. The section of greenstone belts is dominated by volcanic rocks of basic (tholeiites, subordinate calc-alkaline basalts and andesites) and ultrabasic (komatiites) compositions. Greenstone belts contain deposits of iron, chromium, gold, copper, nickel ores, as well as asbestos, magnesite, and marble. Complex rare metal mineralization is associated with the Bikit pegmatites (over 2.7 billion years old). The Archean section in the central part of Zimbabwe is completed by the Shamva "system" of a molassoid character (arkoses, greywackes, conglomerates with horizons of siliceous-hematite schists, limestones and felsic volcanics), which is intruded by rare metal pegmatites (2665-2700 million years) and intrusions of granites and diorites , monzonites and syenites (2540-2660 million years). Gold ore deposits are associated with the Shamva “system”. Part of the greenstone belts passes into the marginal parts of the Limpopo and Zambezi belts.

The base of the Limpopo belt is represented by Katarchean (3.8 billion years old) gneisses of diorite and granodiorite composition, intruded by basic dikes (over 3.6 billion years old) and overlain in the central part by paragneisses and metavolcanics of basic and acidic composition, which are intruded by numerous massifs of anorthosites (3.1-3.2 billion years), granitoids and charnockites (2.7 billion years). For the belt, 2 periods of granulite facies metamorphism are noted. The Zambezi belt has a similar structure to the Limpopo belt. Deposits of iron ore, marble, magnesite, kyanite, muscovite, and graphite are associated with the Catarchean and Lower Archean paragneisses in both belts. The Zimbabwe massif is dissected by the Great Dyke (deposits of chromium, nickel, platinum, and asbestos ores). The Great Dyke is accompanied by satellites of lesser thickness and is confined to the Late Archean thrust zone. The dike can be traced within the Zambezi and Limpopo belts, where it is deformed by later strike-slip faults.

The explored apatite deposits are associated with the alkali-carbonatite ring massifs of Dorov (37 million tons, P 2 O 5 6-8%), Shava, Chishanya in the east of the country. Apatite deposits are also known in the south of Zimbabwe.

In the southeast of the country, large emerald deposits have been identified - Sandavana, Mustard (Filabusi), Novello (Nyanda), Shikwanda (Bikita), etc. The deposits belong to emerald-bearing phlogopite mica, occurring in apoultramafic tremolite and chlorite schists of the Bulawayo “system” or in serpentinites "systems" of the Upper Archean Shamva. Micas are spatially associated with rare-metal granite pegmatites and quartz-tourmaline veins.

Deposits of various types of non-metallic industrial raw materials have been identified in the country. Deposits of chrysotile asbestos are confined to bodies of serpentinized basic and ultrabasic rocks in Archean greenstone strata. Cross-fiber asbestos (fiber length 0.3-25 mm) occurs in stockworks and strip veins. The largest deposits (Zvishavane, Mashava, Gats, King, Pangani, Vangard, Kudu, etc.) are located in the south of the country; small deposits are confined to the Great Dyke. Small deposits of barite are represented by veins in the Archean greenstone series and rocks of the Kappy “system” along the Zambezi River valley. Pyrite deposits are confined to Archean banded iron ores (Mazoe-Duc deposit, reserves 1.7 million tons). Corundum deposits are associated with ancient granite gneisses. Reserves have been calculated only at the O'Briens deposit - 52 thousand tons of corundum in the bedrock and 30 thousand tons in the accompanying alluvial deposit. Deposits with significant reserves of kyanite are confined to the crystalline schists and gneisses of the Catharchean in the north of the country. The largest deposits are Meidcheche (Kyanite Hill; explored reserves 2.7 million tons), Kai (2 million tons), Masterpiece. Pegmatites with muscovite are developed in the north of the country, deposits of the Miami and Hwange regions are of industrial interest. Magnesite deposits of sedimentary-metamorphic origin (Barton Farm) are associated with weathering crust on Archean serpentinites (Panda). Most of the reserves of high-grade magnesite are concentrated in the southern regions of Zimbabwe. The Tinde fluorite deposit (reserves of 200 thousand tons of high-quality fluorite) is located in the west of the country and is represented by a group of hydrothermal quartz-fluorite veins.

Deposits of non-metallic building materials are represented by limestone (the largest deposits of cement limestone are Sternblick with reserves of over 10 million tons and Lambourn with reserves of 4 million tons), dolomites (Dietl, 115 million tons; Rusambo, 100 million tons), refractory clays ( over 35 million tons in the lower reaches of the Sabie River).

Mining . General characteristics. Miningis one of the leading sectors of the economy, its share in GDP is about 9%. Over 40 types of minerals are mined in the country (Table 2, map). Mining of ore minerals is of primary importance for the country's economy.mineral, which account for 67% of the value of industry products (including gold ores - 25.7%, nickel ores 14.3%, copper ores 11.1%, chrome ores 5.1%), as well as asbestos - 20.9 % and coal - 8.2%.

There are approximately 130 mining companies active in the mining industry. The dominant positions are occupied by transnational companies in South Africa - Anglo-American Corporation of South Africa, Great Britain - Rio Tinto and Lonrho, USA - Union Carbide. About 90% of the industry's products are exported (1/3 of the country's total exports), which provides from 30 to 50% of foreign exchange earnings. Zimbabwe occupies a leading place in the world trade of corundum, chrome, lithium and nickel ores, and asbestos. Oil is imported ($265 million, 1981).

Coal industry. Coal mining in Zimbabwe has been carried out since the beginning of the 20th century. to the Hwange (Uanki) basins by Wankie Colliery Co Ltd., a subsidiary of the Anglo-American Corporation. There are 2 mines and 3 quarries (open-pit mining began in 1964), the number of employees is over 5 thousand people. 2 layers are being developed (the upper one with a thickness of 1.4 m and the lower one with a thickness of up to 12 m) at a depth of 50-150 m. A chamber development system is used in the mines. Work has begun on the reconstruction of quarries with an increase in capacity of 3.9 million tons. In open-pit mining (3/4 of total production), mechanical shovels are used for excavation and loading of rock mass, and dump trucks are used for transportation. The volume of overburden annually reaches 8 million m3, the stripping ratio is 3.3.

Chrome mining industry. In terms of production of chrome ores (500-600 thousand tons per year), Zimbabwe ranks 2nd among industrialized capitalist and developing countries (1981). Monopoly positions in the industry are occupied by foreign (Anglo-American) capital. Most deposits are developed underground (20 mines). The largest enterprises "Shurugwi", "Mberengwa", "Mashawa", "Prince", "Kambrai", providing 70% of production, belong to the American company "Union Carbide" and its subsidiary "Chrom Mines Ltd.", the rest - to Zimbabwe companies Alloys Mining Division" and "Vanadium Corp.", which are branches of companies in the USA and South Africa. Mined The ores are metallurgical grades and are used to produce ferrochrome and silicon chrome. The produced ferrochrome is completely exported (including over 20% to the USA).

Nickel mining industry. Zimbabwe is one of the leading producers among industrialized capitalist and developing countries. The mining of nickel ores in Zimbabwe began after the 2nd World War 1939-45. The development is carried out by the English company "Rio Tinto Ltd." (Empress and Persevirance enterprises), the Anglo-American company Rhonick (Nickel Corporation Ltd.) (Trojan, Madziva and Epok enterprises) and the South African company Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Co. Ltd. " ("Shangani"). The Hunter Road field is being prepared for exploitation by Unicorp (Union Corporation Ltd.), owned by the United States. Development is carried out mainly underground. One of the largest enterprises is the Trojan plant (total number of employees: 2,300 people, including 575 people in underground mining; average annual production is about 900 thousand tons of ore), including a mine, an enrichment plant and a refining shop, where raw materials are also processed, coming from other mining enterprises. Development of the Trojan deposit has been ongoing since 1968; development system - blocks with multi-layer extraction of ore and caving of the surrounding rocks. Along the way, copper and cobalt are extracted.

Gold mining industry. Artisanal gold mining in Zimbabwe was carried out by local residents long before the arrival of Europeans; it was started on an industrial scale in 1896 by the British South Africa company. In terms of volume, Zimbabwe's modern production ranks 2nd in Africa (1981). This industry employs 20 thousand people, including about 1 thousand European specialists (1981). There are 177 small and medium-sized enterprises, of which 85% of production was provided by 20 enterprises belonging to the English companies Falcon Mines, Rio Tinto and Lonrho. Gold is mined mainly in the central and eastern parts of the country. The largest enterprises (annual production of 150-300 thousand tons of ore) are Dalni and Ignati. In 1981, the Renko mining enterprise (mine and processing plant) with a production capacity of 180 thousand tons of ore (Au 1.5 tons) per year was put into operation. Silver is also recovered along the way.

Copper mining industry. Copper ore deposits are exploited mainly in the Chinhoyi (Sinoi) region. The development is being carried out by the South African company "Messina (Transvaal) Development Co. Ltd." (Mhangura, Hopa, Silverside, etc. deposits) and "Lomagundi Smelting Mining (Pvt) Ltd." (Alaska, Shackleton, Angua, etc. deposits). Mining is mainly done underground. The ore is processed at a plant in Alaska. Along the way, gold and silver are extracted from the ores. It is planned to resume production at the old Umkondo mine.

Lithium ore mining. Zimbabwe is the largest producer and supplier of lithium in the world (in 1965, before the introduction of international economic sanctions against Southern Rhodesia, it provided about 30% of world supplies). The Bikita (70 km east of Masvingo), El Hayet (20 km northeast of Xapape) and Mutoko (in the Filabusi area) fields are being developed. Exploitation is carried out in a combined way by the company "Bikita Minerals" (most of the shares belong to American companies). There is a decrease in the level of production of lithium ores. Along with lithium minerals, beryl is mined (100 tons in 1969, 60 tons in 1979). The lithium produced is exported to the USA.

Asbestos industry. Zimbabwe is the world's largest producer of asbestos of the chrysotile variety, with a predominance of high-quality textile varieties. The Zvishavane (Shabani; 55 km northeast of the town of Zvishavane) and Mashava (40 km west of the town of Masvingo) deposits are of main industrial importance. The main company is "General Asbestos Corp. Ltd." (with a predominance of South African capital) operates open-pit and underground mines at the Zvishavane, Mashava, Gats, and King deposits. Besides fireproof and fibrous asbestos, raw materials are extracted for the production of high-quality cement. A major producer of asbestos is also the company "Asbestos Investments Ltd." (South Africa), which owns the enterprises "Pangani", "Vangard" and others. Mining is carried out by open-pit mining; the largest enterprise is Pangani (30 thousand tons of asbestos per year). The asbestos produced is exported.

Corundum mining. Zimbabwe is the main producer and exporter of corundum among industrialized capitalist and developing countries (80% of total production). The largest volume of production is provided by the O'Briens deposit, where development has been carried out since 1953 by the mixed company Zimbabwe Corporation Ltd. (2 quarries). Corundum mining at the Andrew deposit is carried out by Intersteel Ore Ltd.

Mining of other minerals. Iron ore mining in Zimbabwe has long been carried out southeast of Bulawayo and east of Xapape, where traces of ancient workings have been preserved. Of primary practical importance are the deposits in the Kwekwe region, which have been developed by open-pit mining since 1962 by the Iron and Steel Co. Ltd. company. In the Bukhwa area the company "Buchwa Iron Ore Mining" built obage fabric. In the city of Kwekwe there is a small metallurgical plant using coking coal from the Hwange Basin. Tungsten ores are developed by the South African company "Messina (Transvaal) Development Co. Ltd." at the Beardmore field near Masvingo. Antimony ores are mined in the regions of Kwekwe (Glob, Phoenix, Inderama, Janet enterprises) and Mberengwa (Gothic, Gweru and Belingwe-Star) from complex gold-antimony ores. Antimony (in the form of concentrate) is completely exported. In the Mberengwa region, the Vedza platinum ore deposit is being developed underground. The processing plant processes up to 600 tons of ore per day. Tin ores have been mined since 1950 using a combined method at the Kamativi deposit, where a processing plant has been operating since 1955. Emerald mining in Zimbabwe began in the late 50s. in the south-eastern part of the country at the Sandavana, Mustard (Filabusi) and other deposits by underground method. Mining at the main Sandawana mine is controlled by Rio Tinto Sandawana Emerals Mine.

Apatite deposits were discovered in the early 1960s. in the Dorowa area, 90 km west of Mutare (Umtali). Mining is carried out by open-pit mining by the Anglo-American company Fertiliser Corp. Phosphorus concentrate is used to produce superphosphate at a plant near Xapape. Barites are mined in the areas of Shamwa (Dodge deposit), Bulawayo (Dyke Mike and Staff), Kwekwe (Argos). Production at the Dodge field began in 1949, in 1966 it was transferred to the company "Johannesburg Consolidated Investment Co. Ltd." (SOUTH AFRICA). The enterprise includes a number of small quarries and mines, the annual production of which fully meets the country's domestic needs for this type of raw material. During mining, blasting, manual ore sorting and mill grinding are used. Limestone is produced along the way (2-6 thousand tons per year). A small amount of fluorite is mined in the Kamatiwi area by Matabeleland Exploration Co. (Rt.) Ltd. Magnesite mining in Zimbabwe has been carried out since 1939. Until 1976, it was carried out by opencast mining at one of the largest Panda deposits (east of Beitbridge). With the depletion of reserves from the Panda deposit, large-scale underground mining began at the Barton Farm deposit (84.5 thousand tons, 1979). The products are completely exported.

Dolomite (about 30 thousand tons per year) and quartz (about 12 thousand tons) are mined by the company "Lamagundi Mining Rt. Ltd." in the Chinhoyi (Sinoi) area. Mica is mined and processed from pegmatites in the Miami area, 32 km northeast of Karoi, by the national company Lomagundi Mining Ltd. (about 2 thousand tons per year) and mixed companies "Bruna Minerals Explotation Ltd." and "Messina Mica Ltd." (1 thousand tons) in the Hwange region. Limestone (over 1 million tons per year) is mined by open pit mining by Zimbabwe Cement near Gwanda (Collin-Bon deposit) and Portland Cement near Xapape (in the Chinhoyi area and Kwekwe). Kaolin and refractory clays are mined in small quantities.

Geological Survey. Scientific institutions. Personnel training. Seal. Miningcoordinated by the government chamber of mines. Geological work is carried out mainly by mining companies. Research work in the mining industry is carried out by the Institute of Mining Research (mainly in 1969) and the Institute of Development Probleme (mainly in 1982). Xapape publishes the specialized magazine "Chamber of Mines Journal" (since 1959).

The Republic of Zimbabwe is a state in East Africa, between Victoria Falls, the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It borders South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the north and Mozambique to the east. Territory - 390,757 km², population - 13.2 million (2013). The capital of the country is Harare, the official languages ​​are English, Shona, and Northern Ndebele.

The country's climate is quite favorable: in summer (December-March) average temperatures do not exceed 25° C, in the winter dry season (June-August) - 17° C.

Zimbabwe is one of the most economically developed countries in Africa. The country has significant reserves of various minerals - coal, chromite ores, asbestos, beryllium, gold, lithium, copper, tantalum, corundum, magnesite. In 2010, Zimbabwe's mining sector grew by about 47%, and its impact on the country's economy has continued to increase in recent years (Table)

Impact of the mining industry on the Zimbabwean economy

Source: Ministry of Finance, 2010. Data for 2011-2013. none

Mining policy in Zimbabwe designed to support the development of the country's mineral resources and create jobs. No mineral resource is given priority in terms of exploration and production.

Recognizing that mineral resources can also be exploited profitably by small-scale miners, the government has allowed the establishment of enterprises that can positively impact the sector and bring benefits in terms of employment, as well as mitigating the social and financial problems of the indigenous people of Zimbabwe.

The Main Mining Law was adopted in 1961, and since then a number of amendments have been made to it. In accordance with it, all minerals are transferred into the possession of the president of the country, and for their development it is necessary to obtain special rights from the mining commissioners. Mining activities are open to both local private miners and companies and foreign ones.

Exploration license. Exploration license holders have the right to occupy and register areas (claims). After registration, the site begins to be considered an area where mining can be carried out. A regular exploration license is valid for 2 years, while an “approved” license is valid for 5 years and can be extended. The fee for obtaining this type of license is 50 Zimbabwe dollars (5 rubles).

Exclusive prospecting order (EPO). The EPO establishes exclusive exploration rights for certain minerals in any area of ​​Zimbabwe. An EPO can be obtained by submitting an application to the mining department and paying for the area of ​​the proposed deposit (12 cents per hectare). Lots cannot exceed the following sizes:

130,000 hectares for coal, oil and gas;

2,600 hectares for precious stones (excluding diamonds);

65,000 hectares for other minerals;

The maximum possible validity period for an EPO is 6 years.

Production license.In Zimbabwe, a mining license is called a mining claim. Since the claim covers only a small area, several areas can be grouped together to form a so-called claim block. The area of ​​ordinary claims is usually 25 hectares, and special ones - 150 hectares. A block of claims can be turned into a mining claim, making it easier to manage. There is a fee for registering claims:

Precious metals and stones - 30 ZWD (ZWD - abbreviated Zimbabwe dollar or at the rate of 3 rubles);

Regular, basic minerals - 60 ZWD (6 rubles);

Special, basic metals - 200 ZWD (20 rubles).

The claim is given to the owner along with the exclusive right to extract mineral resources from it. The claim is inspected every year (with appropriate payments):

The first check is 5 ZWD (50 kopecks) for every 5 constantly developed claims; subsequent ones - 10 ZWD (1 ruble);

Protection of the claim for the extraction of basic minerals, inspection fee: 100 ZWD (10 rubles) for every 5 constantly developed claims.

The owner must satisfy the minimum requirements, which include drawing up a work program, calculating general and production costs.

The Zimbabwean government is not involved in the management of private mining projects by local or foreign companies. This is controlled through the Zimbabwe Mining Development Corporation (ZMDC) and the Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe (MMCZ).

ZMDC was founded in 1982 by the government to participate in the mining industry and rescue mining companies on the verge of closure. ZMDC is actively involved in exploration, mining and assisting small-scale miners.

MMCZ has been in existence since 1992 and is responsible for the sale of all minerals and metals in the country, with the exception of gold and silver (these are handled by the Central Bank).

Zimbabwe - the land of gold

Judging by the content of this metal per square kilometer of territory, the Archean regions of the country are the richest in the world. According to rough estimates, from the 17th century to the 20th century, when there was an increase in mining activity, 700 tons of gold were mined in the country (about 1/3 of the production in the entire history of the country).

The first prospectors worked across the Limpopo River. The highest level of production was in 1906 (30 tons), which was almost achieved 93 years later (27 tons - 1999). Since 1999, gold exploration has been carried out on a small scale in Zimbabwe. Despite a long history of gold mining, there are still many areas in Zimbabwe that have not been properly explored, providing an opportunity to invest in exploration.

A few historical and geological facts:

More than 4,000 ancient gold mines in the form of mining remains have been discovered throughout the country;

90% of deposits occur in association with Archean greenstone belts and surrounding granitoids;

Zimbabwe's greenstone belts are considered the richest in the world;

Significant gold content appears in areas outside the Archean formations.

There are a number of companies involved in gold mining in the country, although Zimbabwe's position as a major gold-mining country is currently deteriorating due to political and social unrest in the country.

African Consolidated Resources operates the highly prospective greenstone belt at the Giant and Blue Rock deposits. African Consolidated Resources' claims cover approximately 18 km.

Record production at Giant was 14 tons of gold at a grade of 8.2 g/t, and is now around 8.5 tons (4.4 million tons of ore at 2.2 g/t).

The Blue Rock project is located 5 km south of Giant. Its proven reserves amount to 8.5 million tons of ore with a content of 1 g/t (7.6 tons of gold).

In the south-west of the country, 560 km from the capital Harare, there is the Blanket mine, owned by Caledonia Mining, which was acquired by Kinross in 2006. To date, more than 28 tons of gold have been recovered from this deposit.

Newly formed New Dawn Mining has been expanding production at the Turk and Angelus mines in southwest Zimbabwe since 2010. Gold production at these deposits can be 1-1.4 tons per year. New Dawn Mining was later acquired by the large Central African Gold company.

In addition, a promising company, BCM Gold, operates in Zimbabwe, developing several local deposits: Lower Gweru, Pickstone, Goalget, Odzi and Simoona Hill.