Four modernizations (1979–2000)

The reforms of the PRC were aimed at long terms: by 2000 – increase in gross industrial output and Agriculture four times, the formation of a society of “moderate prosperity”; by 2021 (100th anniversary of the Communist Party of China) – reaching the level of a moderately developed country. Within the first term, four modernizations were identified.

• 1. Agriculture(since 1979). The starting point is the abolition of people's communes and the distribution of house-to-house contract lands legally left in state property, but transferred to family use with a contract period, first up to 15, then up to 50–70 years. State procurement prices for food and industrial crops were increased relative to prices for industrial products (by 1981 - by 38%, by 1989 - by 77%), which ensured by 1984 an increase in rice harvests by a third, and income for rural residents in general - twice as much. The number of hungry people, according to official statistics, also decreased between 1979 and 1984. doubled, and by the end of the 1990s. – 12.5 times (from 250 million to 20 million people).
• 2. Industry (with 1984), where by the end of the 1970s. Only 18% of the PRC population was employed (in the public sector). The CCP relied on the long-term existence of a public sector covered by directive planning with the growth of a private sector created not so much on the basis of the public sector, but along with it. While maintaining price controls, the government provided cheap loans to state-owned enterprises, allowing their output to grow almost as fast as new private sector enterprises. Nevertheless, the share of products falling under the directive plan decreased over 1980–2000. from 40 to 5%, and the share of state-owned enterprises in the gross volume of industry - from 77.6 to 23.5%. At the end of the 1990s. the repurchase of debts of state-owned enterprises from commercial banks and the issue of shares in the amount of property of enterprises with placement on stock market, after which it was officially announced that only two unprofitable industries remained in China - coal and military.

The largest Chinese industrial company was the State Petrochemical Corporation (1983), transformed during the reorganization into the China National Petroleum Corporation (1998–1999), with the separation of oil production Petrochina and oil refining Sinopec(China Petroleum and Chemical Corporation) – largest company The PRC, whose shares are traded on the stock exchange, and the main investor remains the state.

At the same time, under the slogan “keep the big, let go of the small,” the authorities sanctioned the transfer of small state-owned enterprises to the ownership of their directorate. But even before this, millions of small handicraft and trading enterprises, due to which by 2000 the share of people employed in agriculture (50%) and in other sectors (22.5% in industry, 27.5% in the service sector) was equal, although the share rural population still accounted for 63.4% (in 1979 - 80%). A more literate population began to come to enterprises, both public and private.

• 3. Army. The main direction is improving the rapid reaction forces, equipping them with a fleet of military vehicles; an increase in the share of expenditures on military R&D in such industries as aircraft and shipbuilding, nuclear, and radio-electronics.
• 4. High tech– through the implementation of special state programs (since 1980) and the “technology in exchange for market” policy (1992), i.e. concession to TNK part national market in exchange for receiving advanced technology from them when creating joint ventures (JVs). For joint venture with foreign capital a rate reduction was envisaged income tax up to 15%, investors who provided advanced technologies - benefits up to complete tax exemption.

2. The 4-modernization program, its purpose and implementation

In 1978 it was formulated in general view the goal of transforming China into a powerful and prosperous power, which has become a genuine national mobilizing idea, was concretized in the “Four Modernizations” program: 1) Modernization of agriculture, 2) Industry, 3) Science and technology, 4) Defense.

A course has been set for the formation of a rich democratic socialist state with a per capita income of the population at the level of moderately developed Western countries. Europe. In terms of production level, by 2015, bypass Japan and by 2025, bypass the United States in total. volume of production. By 2050, become the No. 1 country in the world in all major economic indicators.

Graduation is the basis of reforms. An integral feature of the course of Chinese economic reforms is gradualism and prudence, a balanced approach to the planned transformations

In general, four stages of China's economic development can be distinguished:

1. Transition from a natural, semi-natural economy to a planned commodity economy.

2. Transition from agrarian to industrial society.

3. Transition from a closed society to an open one.

4. Transition from a society of “moral principles” to a legal one.

The transition to commodity production took place based on historical, cultural and economic and political traditions. At the end of the 70s of the XX century. reforms were carried out under the slogan “planned economy is the main thing, market regulation is auxiliary”, when the main attention was paid to improving planning management national economy with the assumption of negotiated prices, the development of the individual sector, the emergence of tightly controlled joint ventures, the provision of state-owned enterprises with the right to sell above-plan products, and the introduction of family contracting.

In the period 1984-1990. The official model of transformation was the creation of a socialist commodity economy system. Central location focused on pricing reform. It provided for a transition to free regulation of prices for consumer goods. The reform took place in three stages:

The first is bringing government prices closer to the level of costs,

The second is the gradual transfer of the right to set prices from central to local governments,

The third is the gradual liberalization of production and consumer prices. In the early 1990s, the market orientation of the reform expanded and the concept of a “socialist market economy” began to appear as a target model. The most important characteristic"socialist market economy", according to Chinese experts, is the leading role of public ownership while simultaneously developing a multi-structure economy.

Reform state enterprises includes the expansion of the rights of enterprises while retaining the state's ownership of their property, as well as the corporatization of enterprises, with the exception of enterprises in the defense industries, the extraction of rare metals and state monopolies.

The transition from an agrarian to an industrial society is characterized by the elimination of people's communes in the countryside and the development of free enterprise. In the 1990s, the number of village enterprises increased 14 times compared to the 1980s, exceeding 21 million, and the number of employees increased 4 times. Village enterprises must allocate the lion's share of income to support agricultural production and social needs (40% of gross profit). The share of taxes in the gross profit of these enterprises exceeds 50%. Most village enterprises employ relatives, which creates a system of relationships characteristic of pre-industrial society.

In China, there is a clear division of the economy into urban and rural. The main innovation in the village economy was the spread of household contracting (working peasant farms) with the right to dispose, use and inherit land plots. Creation of the Institute private property complicated by a shortage of arable land, overpopulation, low level socio-economic development of the village, the centuries-old foundations of peasant life. According to estimates, per capita in the PRC there are 0.09 hectares of arable land (in Russia - 0.9 hectares).

In general, agricultural production retains a natural and semi-natural character. This is determined by a significant level of self-sufficiency and a low share of commercial products (approximately 30%). The main buyer of agricultural products is the state, which widely uses price regulation. Settlements with manufacturers are often carried out using receipts, which practically cannot be used to buy anything. Nevertheless, agricultural production is growing: in the 1990s, compared to the 1980s, cotton production increased by 15%; tea leaf harvests increased by 22% (commercial yield - 96%), etc.

Since 1979, China has set a course for the transition from a closed society to an open one, counting on the influx of foreign capital into the country for modernization and development industrial production, allowing social migration of the population.

A huge role in the implementation of reforms in China is played by the government’s policy of attracting direct foreign investment, which were integrated into national economy, caused growth and diversification of industrial production, stimulated the development of exports.

The system of mobilization and distribution of investment resources in the period before the implementation of the reform policy was based on the complete withdrawal of enterprise profits from the state budget and the further distribution of funds between regions, industries, and enterprises. Allocations to the economy were gratuitous in nature with an emphasis on administrative methods of economic management. During the reform period, funding sources were diversified. Along with public funds funds from collective, individual, private and joint ventures and population accumulation are actively used.

Geographical proximity of Hong Kong, which has a developed financial sector and huge trade connections, was a major advantage for foreign companies that began to locate labor-intensive, export-oriented assembly plants in China.

To stimulate investment processes By decision of the Chinese government, 4 special economic zones were created in the Primorsky regions: Shanghai, Zhuhai, Shantod, Haikou, where flows of foreign direct investment from Hong Kong, Taiwan and the United States immediately went.

In 1984, 14 coastal cities and ports were opened to foreign investment. Western investors have the opportunity to enter China's large domestic markets and territories with a large workforce, qualified technical staff, developed infrastructure and small enterprises. In 1985-1986 these cities accounted for 23% of China's industrial output and 40% of its exports.

In 1985, China opened up 18 more cities to foreign investment that had an abundance of cheap labor and were home to labor-intensive primary and secondary industries. This entailed the relocation of entire factories and modern production complexes of TNCs to these areas, the modernization of the technological and production base of local enterprises.

In 1986, the Chinese government issued a list of 22 regulations aimed at improving the investment climate to attract foreign direct investment. Special exchange offices were opened for investors who had the opportunity to buy hard currency, imported raw materials, and repatriate profits.

In 1990, a new corporate policy was introduced and came into force regulations on copyright protection. This has intensified investment flows of foreign direct investment from Japan, the USA and Western Europe.

Since 1992, China has taken measures aimed at liberalizing the service sector and creating preconditions for joining the WTO. Therefore for foreign investors previously closed sectors of the economy were gradually opened: real estate, transport, telecommunications, road construction, airport infrastructure, port development, retail, insurance, accounting services and environmental technologies.

Joint ventures operating in priority sectors of the economy received special benefits regarding the transfer of technology and exports. China is characterized by the creation of joint-stock joint ventures with foreign participation from 22 to 50%. Foreign investors provide enterprises with equipment, technology and financing. The Chinese side provides infrastructure, manpower and local connections.

According to the law, technology and know-how provided by a foreign party must be advanced and meet the needs of the country. Chinese authorities instruct foreign investors to purchase raw materials and production materials, fuel and auxiliary equipment from local suppliers, and to sell manufactured products outside of China. This helps the state accumulate foreign exchange reserves.

Recently, the number of enterprises with 100% foreign capital has been increasing in China. Previously, they could only be created in special economic zones Since 1986, such enterprises have spread throughout almost all of China. Such companies, as a rule, are export-oriented, use Newest technologies and modern equipment. By law, they are protected from nationalization and expropriation, but such enterprises must not harm China's public and national interests.

In 1995, China passed a law allowing foreign companies create holdings. When organizing a holding, there are three conditions: the company must be financially healthy, have a long history of activity in China and own assets of at least $400 million; have a consolidated share capital in the amount of at least 10 million dollars; have approval to conduct at least three investment projects in China.

Various incentives are used to attract foreign direct investment in China. They include: tax holidays, preferential import tariffs, simplified rules for hiring and dismissing foreign personnel.

If the volume of investment in a region is below a certain level for the country, then regional authorities can, without special permissions, introduce their own incentive mechanisms to attract foreign direct investment. This contributes to the development of local regional markets, the intensity of intrastate economic turnover is growing. Nevertheless, the formation of a single market in China is hampered by backwardness transport infrastructure.

Social migration of the population also contributes to the openness of the economy. More than 50 million people move annually from region to region, from village to city. However, the state limits the growth of the urban population through the concept of “child replacement,” according to which enterprises and organizations retiring workers must employ their children in the company. This leads to the preservation of class relations and reduces efficiency modern methods management. Although this approach was abandoned in the early 1980s and a policy of free competitive selection was proclaimed, it still occurs in labor relations.

The problem of education is acute, although allocations to this area are 2 times higher than to agriculture. Approximately 8.5% engage in mental work active population. In the PRC there is the concept of “new illiterates” (persons who have lost their knowledge of hieroglyphs and have forgotten how to read and write). Every year, more than 4 million children leave primary school, 2 million leave junior secondary school, and more than 2 million do not have the opportunity to study at all, which, naturally, negatively affects the progress of reforms. Recently, teaching in English has been practiced in China.

By the end of 1976, China found itself in a state of deep economic and socio-political crisis. The cause of the crisis was the great-power militaristic course of Mao Zedong, the voluntaristic policy of " great leap" and Maoist " cultural revolution" According to the Chinese press, 1966-1976. become " lost decade", which threw the country back, putting the national economy on the brink of collapse. The country's economy was almost completely destroyed, hundreds of thousands of people were below the poverty line.

At the end of the 70s, Deng Xiaoping became the leader of the party and the country.

The basis for the practical development of reform ideas Deng Xiaoping became the course approved in the mid-70s four modernizations", which pursued the goal of transformation in four areas - agriculture, industry, army, science and technology. Policy " four upgrades"reflected the material content of the reform. The essence of the ideological and political line was represented by “four basic principles”: the socialist path of development, the democratic dictatorship of the people, the leadership of the Communist Party, Marxism-Leninism and ideas Mao Zedong.

At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh CPC Central Committee, held on December 18-22, 1978, on the initiative of Deng Xiaoping and his associates, a historic decision was made to abandon the theory of “continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat” and the political orientation towards waging “class struggle” as the main task , and shift the center of gravity of party work to the implementation of modernization. According to this, it was announced and approved new policy"reform and opening up" of the People's Republic of China

Thus, reforms and policies were declared the main means of modernization. openness" The reforms were aimed at bringing production relations into line with the objectives of developing the productive forces so that production relations did not become an inhibitory factor for the country's development. And the policy of “openness” was intended to include the PRC in the process of globalization of the economy and other spheres of life of the human community, to actively attract foreign capital, to use the achievements of science and technology, and management experience in order, ultimately, to increase China’s global competitiveness. The goal of socialist modernization was to remove China by the middle of the 21st century to the level of moderately developed countries in terms of production per capita and the achievement on this basis of the general well-being of its citizens. The path to modernization was the accelerated growth of economic potential, its qualitative renewal and increased efficiency based on the development of scientific and technical potential, based on the fact that science is the main productive force.

Only after the necessary political conditions have been created, Dan Xiaoping managed to begin a full-scale implementation of the modernization program. Economic reform, according to Deng Xiaoping's theory, is impossible without reform of the political system.

The CPC, as the ruling party and as the guarantor of socio-political stability, was given a special place in the reform of the political system, and in the modernization process in general, without which the successful implementation of the course of socialist modernization would not have been possible. Great importance in reforming the political system was attached to the transformation of China into a modern rule of law state, “governed by law,” that is, the development of comprehensive legislative and regulatory framework and putting it into practice.

At the Third Plenum of the Fourteenth CPC Central Committee in 1993, the CPC leadership led by Deng Xiaoping the theoretical breakthrough", who announced the combination of a market economy with socialism.

At the XV CPC Congress in 1997, the party charter included a provision on the leadership role “ Deng Xiaoping's theories"at the initial stage of socialism. It was declared a new stage in the development of Marxism in China, the second theoretical achievement after “ ideas of Mao Zedong", "the continuation and development of the ideas of Mao Zedong", the scientific system of building socialism with Chinese characteristics.

The search for ways to modernize in China began from industrialization through the implementation of the course “ four upgrades", which covered all the main spheres of the material existence of the state, towards a comprehensive modernization of both the political-administrative, material and spiritual foundations of the life of the Chinese people. The evolution of the modernization theory of the PRC is associated with a gradual increase in economic freedom while simultaneously improving the management mechanism through the introduction of certain elements of democratization and the cultivation of a modern civilized cultural environment. But the CPC's monopoly on power remains the main constant for the implementation of the PRC's modernization policy at all stages.

Deng Xiaoping adhered to the principle of “starting from practice” in everything (this is why there are no voluminous theoretical works in his collected works). He considered the main task of the modernization policy of the PRC to be the rise of productive forces, and he saw the main method of leadership in taking into account material interests carried out through the mechanism of market relations. Hence the rejection of " folk commune"and the introduction of family contracting in the countryside, the abolition of equalization and the introduction of the principle of distribution according to work, the diversity of forms of ownership in the economy of towns and villages, the promotion of the rationality of achieving prosperity by an initially defined part of the population and regions, a move away from excessive centralization of power, a course towards the comprehensive development of science and technology as the main productive force, broad economic, foreign policy and cultural integration with the outside world.

Another direction of reform is associated with the gradual expansion of representative democracy within the framework of the system of people's congresses and, possibly, the intensification of the activities of the system of multi-party cooperation that has historically developed over the years of the existence of the PRC. But in any case, all this does not yet affect the CCP’s monopoly on power in order to avoid destabilization, which is fraught with the emergence of uncontrollable political processes that threaten the collapse of the country. Therefore, special importance is attached to strengthening the ruling party and adapting the forms and methods of its activities and ideological platform to the requirements of modern reality.

To evaluate the reform, it is necessary to define the main criteria. According to Deng Xiaoping, transformations can be considered successful if they contributed to the development of productive forces, strengthening the power of the country, and improving the standard of living of the population.

Over a quarter of a century, China's gross domestic product has increased sixfold, and personal consumption per capita has increased three and a half times. China today is fast developing country with modern industry, developed science and culture.

What could have caused such a breakthrough in the development of a once backward country? The country's leadership believes that this became possible thanks to the model of socialism with Chinese characteristics, the origins of which were the decisions of the 3rd Plenum of the 11th CPC Central Committee in 1978 and the underlying theory of Deng Xiaoping.

Deng Xiaoping's theory became a generalization of the experience of building Chinese socialism. It is called differently: “the theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics”, “Chinese Marxism”, “valuable spiritual heritage” of the CPC and the people.

Deng Xiaoping's development of the theory of socialism with Chinese characteristics was directly related to overcoming the left and right deviations in the party, which, in his opinion, could “ruin socialism.”

Counting the left " main danger", he opposed their anti-scientific thesis that " better poor socialism than rich capitalism».

Deng Xiaoping also proposed abandoning the leftist position that “ emphasis on class struggle" He believed that when creating socialism, especially in a backward country, emphasis should be placed on economic development and the consistent implementation of socialist modernization, that is, to accelerate the development of agriculture, industry, science, and improve socialist democracy and the rule of law.

Deng Xiaoping developed and implemented a model of transition from planned economy to a market one that meets Chinese realities. With the three expediency criteria he formulated, it was possible to minimize the social cost of reforms, not to deepen, but to reduce the polarization of society, while maintaining incentives for the growth of productive forces.

Disagreements within the leadership of the CPC on the problems of determining the internal political course and foreign policy orientation of the country reached great severity by the end of 1965. Mao Zedong put forward the idea of ​​​​class struggle in a socialist society back in 1957, and after the X Plenum of the Central Committee of the CEC of the 8th convocation (1962 .) he began to propagate and impose on the country the idea of ​​​​increasing the class struggle, put forward the position of continuing the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat.

The Cultural Revolution, conceived and unleashed by Mao Zedong in 1966, was aimed at eliminating from the leading bodies of the party all those who disagreed with his policies.

Most Chinese scholars divide the history of the Cultural Revolution into three stages.

First stage lasted from May 1966 to April 1969 - this was the most active and destructive phase of the cultural revolution, which ended with the convening of the IX Congress of the CPC. Occasion: Yao Wenyuan's article “About new edition historical drama The Demotion of Hai Rui."

In May 1966, at an expanded meeting of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee, the Message of the CPC Central Committee of May 16 was adopted, which outlined the main ideas of Mao Zedong on the cultural revolution. To suppress opposition forces in the party, Mao Zedong and his supporters used politically immature youth, from whom the Red Guard assault troops were formed. Persecution of the intelligentsia, party members, and Komsomol began.

In August 1966, the XI Plenum of the 8th CPC Central Committee was convened, at which a large-scale reorganization of the party leadership took place.

As a result of Mao Zedong's flirtations with the Red Guards, their outrages after the plenum acquired even greater proportions. The destruction of government bodies, public organizations, and party committees began. The Red Guards were essentially placed above the party and government agencies.

Life in the country was disorganized, the economy suffered severe damage, hundreds of thousands of CCP members were subjected to repression, and persecution of the intelligentsia intensified.

In December 1966, along with the Red Guard detachments, zaofan (rebel) detachments appeared, which involved young, usually unskilled workers, students, and employees. They had to transfer the cultural revolution to enterprises and institutions and overcome the resistance of workers to the Red Guards. But the workers, at the call of the CPC committees, and sometimes spontaneously, fought back against the rampaging Red Guards and Zaofans, sought to improve their financial situation, went to the capital to present their claims, stopped work, declared strikes, and entered into battles with the pogromists.

To break the resistance of opponents of the Cultural Revolution, a campaign was launched to seize power. The seizure of power was carried out with the help of the army, which suppressed resistance and exercised control over communications, prisons, warehouses, storage and distribution of secret documents, banks, and central archives. Special units were allocated to support the rebels, since there was dissatisfaction in the army with the atrocities of the Red Guards and Zaofan. But it was not possible to quickly implement the plan to seize power. Workers' strikes spread, bloody clashes with the Zaofans occurred everywhere, as well as fights between various organizations of the Red Guards and the Zaofans.

Since January 1967, the creation of new anti-constitutional bodies began local authorities- Revolutionary Committees. At first, the leaders of the Red Guards and Zaofan gained dominance in them, which caused discontent among party workers and the military. Political struggle intensified in the center and locally, and in a number of areas there were clashes between military units and organizations of the Red Guards and Zaofan. At the end of the summer of 1967, military control was effectively established in the country.

The IX Congress of the CPC (April 1969), to which delegates were not elected but appointed, approved and legitimized all the actions taken in the country in 1966 - 1969.

Theoretical basis The activities of the CPC were proclaimed by the ideas of Mao Zedong.

Second phase cultural revolution - from the IX to the X Congress of the CPC - began in May 1969 and ended in August 1973.

Some leaders who managed to maintain their positions demanded adjustments to extremist attitudes in the economic field, taking into account the urgent needs of the country's development. On their initiative, since the early 70s. elements of planning, distribution by labor, and material incentives began to be carefully introduced. Measures were also taken to improve the management of the national economy and the organization of production. There have also been some changes in cultural policy, although strict control over cultural life still remains.

Third stage The Cultural Revolution lasted from September 1973 to October 1976.

Debunking Confucianism and praising Legalism. In January 1975, after a 10-year break, the 1st session of the 4th National People's Congress was convened, which adopted the new Constitution of the People's Republic of China. The Constitution was the result of a compromise: it included the provisions of 1966-1969, it enshrined the right of members of communes to personal plots, provided for the need to gradually increase the material and cultural standard of living of the people and wages.

The NPC session formed the highest government bodies Chinese authorities.

On the initiative of Mao Zedong at the turn of 1974-1975. A campaign was launched under the slogan of the struggle for the study of the theory of the dictatorship of the proletariat. An important task This campaign was a struggle against those representatives of the CPC leadership who defended the need for increased attention to economic development and the use of more rational methods of managing the national economy.

During the new political campaign, distribution according to labor, the right to personal plots, and commodity-money relations were declared bourgeois rights that must be limited, that is, equalization must be introduced. Under the guise of a new campaign on many industrial enterprises and in the communes they were disadvantaged economic interests workers. This caused mass discontent among workers, worker strikes, and peasant unrest.

On September 9, 1976, Mao Zedong died in Beijing at the age of 83. The death of Mao Zedong and subsequent events associated with the arrest and removal from power of the four - Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen - on the initiative of Marshal Ye Jianying, put an end to the Cultural Revolution. A new stage in the country's development has begun.

The “Gang of Four” is the name of the left-wing political faction of the CCP, which included four leaders of the Chinese Communist Party who came to power during the Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976, and were subsequently accused of a series of treasonous crimes. The members of the group were: Jiang Qing, the last wife of Mao Zedong and the leader of the faction, and her closest associates Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan and Wang Hongwen.

The “Gang of Four” successfully controlled the activities of the CCP authorities in last stages Cultural Revolution, acting on behalf of Mao Zedong. The Gang of Four, along with the discredited Marshal Lin Biao, were declared two of the most dangerous counter-revolutionary forces of the Cultural Revolution and were officially blamed for all the unrest that occurred during the revolution. Thus, the modern CCP shifted responsibility for the failures of the “cultural revolution” onto them.

The policy of "Four Modernizations" - main. directions of development of China after the death of Mao Zedong. The need to modernize the village. x., industrial, national. defense, as well as the sphere of science and technology, was declared in a speech by Mao himself in 1963, but during the “cultural revolution” the primacy of ideology over economics was undeniable. After Deng Xiaoping came to power, the “Ch.m.” policy received priority. Its key areas were the training of scientists, engineers and managers, as well as agricultural reform. X. by introducing a “responsibility system” (transfer of powers in the management of farming from communes to the individual producer).

Conflict with Vietnam:

In January 1979, the Vietnamese overthrew the Beijing-oriented Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. In addition, in January 1979, the Vietnamese communists, distinguished by considerable nationalism, expelled from Vietnam the large Chinese diaspora, which had long lived in the cities and in the north of the country.

In response, the Chinese communists, also distinguished by considerable nationalism, attacked the Vietnamese border on the evening of February 16, 1979. The invasion took place on several fronts.

In general fighting walked along almost the entire line of the Vietnamese-Chinese border. During the first three days of the war, the Chinese managed to capture the provincial center of Lao Cai. However, after this the pace of the offensive decreased sharply. By the end of February, the PLA captured another provincial center - Cao Bang. On March 4, Lang Son was captured, from where the road to Hanoi was open to Chinese troops. On March 5, general mobilization was announced in Vietnam. But on the same day, China officially announced the end of the offensive and the beginning of the withdrawal of troops. Despite this, the fighting continued until the completion of the withdrawal of Chinese troops from Vietnamese territory, which, according to Chinese data, occurred on March 16.

Results: Both sides declared victory in the war. China's military success was partial. The intended provincial centers and border areas were captured, but it took much longer than expected. All industrial and economic facilities of Vietnam in these territories suffered major damage. But the Vietnamese militia bore the brunt of the fighting. The PLA's own losses, regardless of the difference in estimates, turned out to be quite large. The war demonstrated the weakness and backwardness of the PLA, which still adhered to Mao Zedong's concept of "people's war". It revealed poor training of command personnel, low mobility of units, and a lack of modern weapons and communications. Soon after the war, a deep modernization of the PLA began. The Vietnamese army also demonstrated its shortcomings, in particular the lack of initiative and insufficient preparedness of its command.

After the end of the war, relations between China and Vietnam remained tense for about a decade. Armed clashes constantly took place on the border, at times resulting in a real border conflict (in 1984). The last armed conflict between the countries occurred in March 1988.

Deng Xiaoping is a Chinese politician, famous for combining completely polar concepts - communism and market economy. The man's biography is full of ups and downs. He lost his positions three times, going into exile, but invariably appeared in the political arena. Thus, he justified the nickname he received as a student. Xiaoping is the name given to a travel bottle for vodka, which, like the Russian toy Vanka-Vstanka, cannot be “put on its shoulder blades.”

Childhood and youth

The Chinese reformer was born into a wealthy family of a small landowner and before school bore the name Deng Xiansheng. The parents were a contrasting pair: the father was educated, politically savvy, and the mother was an illiterate woman from a poor family.

When the boy was four years old, his mother died, leaving her husband with four children. Father tried to fix personal life, having married a second time. The stepmother accepted her husband's heirs as family, and Xiansheng developed a warm relationship with her.

The boy studied at a private gymnasium. At school, the teacher insisted that the student “rename”: Xiansheng translates as “overtaking the sage,” so the future politician turned into Deng Xixian.

Dan met 1920 in France. The teenager went to this country with 80 students from a private school to gain knowledge from foreign teachers. It wasn't easy being away from my parents' house. The meager scholarship was sorely lacking, so the young man worked a lot - as a waiter, fireman, laborer at a rubber factory, and even mined iron ore.

Dan returned home only six years after leaving. In France, the young man was captivated by the ideas of Marxism, he joined the ranks of the Communist Youth League of China, and then the Communist Party. Very soon he headed the European branch of the youth union. At this time he received the party nickname Xiaoping.

In the winter of 1926, Dan left French soil in a hurry and ended up in Moscow. Interesting fact- lived in the capital of Russia under the surname Dozorov (in some of the sources Drozdov, but researchers point to an error). I sat down at my desk again, this time at the University of the Toilers of the East. . And a year later, reinforced by the experience of changing capitalism to socialism in the USSR, he returned to China, where he plunged headlong into politics.

Policy

Deng Xiaoping began his political career in deep underground, but in leadership positions. He was the head of the political department of the Military-Political School, the general secretary of the CPC Central Committee, the leader of the Central Committee branch in Shanghai, and campaigned for the Red Army military. Under his leadership, an anti-government uprising broke out in southern China, however, it was unsuccessful. After the rebellion was suppressed, Xiaoping fled to Jiangxi, which became a Soviet republic.

Disagreements grew between the Central Committee of the Party in Shanghai and those who ruled the roost in the villages of the regions that were already calling themselves Soviet. The leader of the “urban” group was Wang Min, and the second direction was led by Xiaoping, whose side he took. In 1933, Dan was stripped of all his positions.

During civil war the young man took part in the Long March - this is the name given to the escape of the displaced communists from the conquered bases in southern China. Deng was returned to the position of head of the secretariat of the Central Committee, and he justified the trust.

The new government was gaining ground, Xiaoping played an important role in the ensuing struggle for power, and a man in the position of military commissar organized several military operations. Including against the Japanese aggressors trying to take over the country in the late 30s. In these campaigns, Dan gained fame as an intelligent commander.

When the People's Republic of China was finally born, Deng Xiaoping went under the party's orders to control the southwest of the country as the first secretary of the committee.

Reforms

At the end of the 50s, as a result of the “Great Leap Forward” policy proclaimed by Mao Zedong, about 30 million people in the country died of starvation. Deng Xiaoping, who by 1956 held the position of General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, had to deal with the consequences of unsuccessful reforms.

However, with the ruling at that time Soviet Union, the same title did not bring us together. Unlike Leonid Ilyich, Xiaoping was in 5th-6th place in the hierarchy of the Chinese government. Before the reforms began, the man made his famous statement:

“It doesn’t matter what color the cat is - white or black, as long as it catches mice well. It doesn’t matter whether it’s socialism or capitalism, the main thing is that people live well.”

Economic transformations bore fruit: the famine stopped, Deng began to gain popularity among the population, for which he paid. In the mid-60s, the Cultural Revolution broke out in China. The first enemy was declared to be the Chairman of the People's Republic of China, Liu Shaoqi, and after him Deng Xiaoping fell into disgrace. Stripped of all titles and regalia, the man spent two years under investigation, and then worked as a mechanic at a tractor factory.

His long-time friend and comrade-in-arms, Premier of the People's Republic of China Zhou Enlai, helped him return to politics, and persuaded Mao to give Deng a chance. Xiaoping again took up reform, but after Enlai's death he again fell out of favor with the top government. True, not for long. After the death of Mao Zedong, the politician becomes the leader of the country, although in fact the former leader's successor, Premier Hua Guofeng, remained at the helm.

By the early 1980s, Deng had removed Guofeng, divided key positions among like-minded people, and began to change China's economy. The so-called “four modernizations” reform affected agriculture, science, the defense industry and industrial production.

The main thing is that I did new leader, so it divided the lands between the peasants - in fact, decollectivization happened. People had to hand over food “norms” to the state, but for a fixed price. As a result of agrarian reform, the country increased food production by 1.5 times over the decade.

Members of the people's communes also received the right to engage in business by hiring workers. Since then, the world market has been filled with cheap Chinese clothing and other goods. American sinologist Evan Salisbury described Xiaoping's contribution to the development of China as follows:

“Dan gave the land back to the peasants, destroyed the commune system and watched as their sacks overflowed with rice. He filled people's pockets with money - money that they themselves earned."

A significant task domestic policy The development of large-scale industry also began; at the beginning of the reforms, attention was turned towards new technologies. The architect of Chinese reforms, as Deng Xiaoping is called, managed to attract major foreign investors to the country.

At first, however, citizens of the USA, Germany, UAE, and Japan were afraid to invest in China. But Chinese businessmen living in Hong Kong and Singapore have proven that investing in the most populous country is not only not scary, but also necessary. During Deng's reign, $650 billion was invested in China.

The modernization of the country's foundations had nothing to do with politics, although, in essence, it was also perestroika. Ideas for important changes did not come from above, but were taken from the real needs of the population and dictated from the bottom.

The policy of reform and opening up has affected relations with other countries. China has made friends with America, China and Japan. The Land of the Rising Sun was considered the most promising in terms of cooperation. A brilliant victory in foreign policy became an agreement with Great Britain on the return of Hong Kong, which had lived under the British flag for more than a century, to China.

Deng Xiaoping maintained the Communist monopoly of power. And after a decade of his reforms, a civil liberal movement was formed in the country. In the summer of 1989, crowds of people came to Beijing Square. There were protests for several weeks, and eventually Deng ordered a riot by force. Thousands of citizens died then. A little later, Xiaoping refused all posts, and three years later he left the political arena forever.

Personal life

During his long life, Deng Xiaoping managed to marry three times. I first stamped my passport at the age of 23. The chosen one was a fellow student at a Moscow university, Zhang Siyuan. The girl died shortly after giving birth to her daughter, two years after the marriage. The heiress also did not survive.

The second wife of Jin Weiying chose a future politician who would become famous for such high-profile achievements over another communist figure.

The third wife lived with Xiaoping until the end of her life and gave birth to five children: three daughters and two sons. The fate of the eldest heir, Deng Pufan, was tragic. The young man suffered in the fire of the “cultural revolution” - he was tortured and then thrown from the third floor of the university by the Red Guards, as a result of which he remained confined to a wheelchair for the rest of his life. And the youngest daughter Deng Rong wrote books about the fate of her father.

Describing the character of the Chinese politician, Mao himself said:

“He is a sharp needle wrapped in cotton wool.”

He also received the nickname “Xiaoping” because of his personal traits: Deng was very short in stature - only 152 cm, but courageous, with an unyielding disposition, which was impossible to reforge.

The future politician was fond of football, swimming, played billiards and especially respected bridge, a passion for which he brought from France. There the young man became an avid smoker, and carried his love for tobacco throughout his life.

Death

Xiaoping suffered from Parkinson's disease and died in February 1997. The cause of death was a lung infection complicated by a chronic illness. The funeral took place according to the rules of the Party Central Committee, which do not provide for farewell to the body.

The urn containing the ashes was displayed in the hall of the National People's Congress. 10 thousand people who received an official invitation took part in the funeral meeting. The ashes were scattered over the ocean.

Quotes

“If you open the window to the world too wide, flies will fly in.”

“We need to do more and talk less”

“Observe coolly; be prepared to react; stand firm; do not show your capabilities and wait for the right moment; never try to get ahead of yourself; be able to finish the job"

“No discussion!” “This is one of my inventions.”

Memory

• The book “My Father is Deng Xiaoping.”
• Monument to Deng Xiaoping in the city of Shenzhen in Lianhuashan Park.
• Another monument to the party leader was erected in honor of his 100th birthday in the city of Guang'an (Southwestern China).
• The wax figure of Deng Xiaoping is an exhibit at Madame Tussauds.
• In 2014, the documentary film “Deng Xiaoping at the Crossroads of History” was released in China.