Book of income and expenses / 15.01.2021

Development of banking infrastructure in modern conditions. Credit and banking systems

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The banking infrastructure is understood as such a set of elements that ensures the vital activity of banks. It is customary to distinguish between two blocks of banking infrastructure: internal and external. The first ensures the stability of the bank from the inside, the second - in its interaction with the external environment.

The elements of internal infrastructure include:

legislative norms defining the status of a credit institution, a list of operations performed by it;

internal rules for performing transactions, ensuring the implementation of legislative acts and the protection of the interests of depositors, customers of the bank, its own interests, in general, methodological support;

construction of accounting, reporting, analytical base, computer data processing, management of the bank's activities on the basis of modern communication systems;

the structure of the bank management apparatus.

The starting point of the bank's activities is various kinds of legal norms and documents (the charter of the bank, permission to carry out certain operations by it, the prohibition to engage in certain types of services, etc.).

The external block of banking infrastructure includes:

1.Information Support;

2. scientific support;

3.staffing;

4. the legal framework.

1. In the course of their activities, banks actively use data on the economy of enterprises, the development of their product, financial sustainability... In addition to balance sheets and other forms of reporting of enterprises, banks collect information on the activities of their clients in periodicals, use the services of special agencies that have confidential information about the enterprise as a whole and its managers.

2. In market conditions, banks direct a significant part of their resources to the development of scientific support. Almost every commercial bank employs market analysts. Large banks, interbank associations form special scientific structures (think tanks, research institutes). Market analysis, development of new banking products, improving the organization of labor, the mechanism for performing banking operations allow banks to resist the competition, avoid mistakes, and generally increase the reliability and efficiency of their work.

3. Staffing is an essential part of the banking infrastructure. Cadres, as they say, are everything. The efficiency of all banking activities depends on professional specialists.

4. A special block of banking infrastructure is banking legislation. Like other blocks, it has a significant impact on both the development of the banking system and its relationship with enterprises, organizations, and the population.

Security system for commercial banks.

In the development of market relations and the formation of commercial structures, commercial banks play a dominant role. It is they who accumulate huge financial flows and are able to actively influence development national economy... ... The bank's problems affect broad layers of the population and are capable, and sometimes even capable of influencing the situation in the country. The crimes committed against banks and bank employees are the most dangerous and serious.

The security objects of a commercial bank are;

Personnel (management, responsible executors, employees);

Financial assets, material values, the latest technologies;

Information resources (information with limited access, constituting a commercial secret, other confidential information provided in the form of documents and arrays, regardless of the form and type of their presentation).

The subjects of legal relations in solving the security problem are:

The state as the owner of resources created, acquired and accumulated at the expense of state budgets, as well as information resources classified as state secrets;

National Bank implementing monetary country politics;

Commercial Bank as a legal entity that owns financial and information resources that constitute official, commercial and banking secrets;

Other legal entities and individuals, including partners and clients in financial relations, involved in the operation of a commercial bank both domestically and in external financial relations (government bodies, executive bodies, organizations involved in the provision of security services, servicing staff, clients, etc.);

Security services of commercial banks and private security and detective structures.

Objects subject to protection from potential threats and unlawful encroachments include:

Bank personnel (executives, production personnel with direct access to finance, currency, valuables, depositories, knowledgeable in information constituting banking and commercial secrets, employees of foreign economic services and others;

Financial assets, currency, jewelry;

Information resources with limited access, constituting official and commercial secrets, as well as other confidential information on paper, magnetic, optical basis, information arrays and databases, software, informative physical fields of various nature;

Means and systems of informatization ( automated systems and computer networks of various levels and purposes, telegraph, telephone, facsimile, radio and space communication lines, technical means of transmitting information, means of multiplying and displaying information, auxiliary technical means and systems);

Material assets (buildings, structures, storage facilities, technical equipment, transport and other means);

Technical means and systems for the protection and protection of material and information resources.

All objects in respect of which security threats or unlawful encroachments can be carried out have different potential vulnerabilities in terms of possible material or moral damage. Based on this, they should be classified according to the levels of vulnerability (hazard), the degree of risk.

The greatest vulnerability is presented by financial and foreign exchange funds, especially in the process of transportation, information resources and some categories of personnel.

Having dealt with subjects and objects, let's move directly to security threats. In the process of identifying, analyzing and predicting potential threats to the interests of the bank, it is necessary to take into account objectively existing external and internal conditions that affect their danger. These are:

Unstable political, socio-economic situation and aggravation of the crime situation;

Failure to comply with legislative acts, legal nihilism, lack of a number of laws on vital issues;

Reducing the moral, psychological and industrial responsibility of citizens.

Lack of competent security professionals.

Let's take a closer look at the most vulnerable categories.

What threatens the staff and employees of the bank?

Abductions and threats to abduct employees, their families and close relatives;

Murders accompanied by violence, bullying and torture;

Psychological terror, threats, intimidation, blackmail, extortion;

Attack with the aim of taking over in cash, valuables and documents.

Criminal attacks against premises (including residential), buildings and personnel are manifested in the form of:

Explosions;

Shooting from firearms;

Mining, including with the use of remote control;

Arson;

Attacks, invasions, seizures, picketing, blocking;

Damage to entrance doors, grilles, fences, showcases, furniture, as well as personal and business vehicles;

Technological accidents, fires, natural disasters, etc.

Threats financial resources appear in the form:

Non-repayment of credit loans;

Account and deposit fraud;

Forged payment documents and plastic cards;

Theft of funds from cash desks and cash collection vehicles.

Drastic change economic situation in the country (economic crises)

Bankruptcy of business partners of the bank

Threats to information resources are manifested in the form of:

Disclosure of confidential information;

Leaks of confidential information through technical means of ensuring production activities of various nature and execution;

Unauthorized access to protected information by competitive organizations and criminal groups.

Destroying or damaging media strategically important information due to malicious acts or accidents

Waging an "information war" against a bank causing significant damage to its business reputation

How can you protect yourself from these threats? Summarizing and analyzing, the following main components of the security problem can be distinguished:

1) Legal protection.

2) Organizational protection.

3) Engineering and technical protection.

4) Insurance cover

Composition and structure of banking assets.

The assets of the bank are allocated resources, which are either in its own possession or attracted by the bank on a temporary basis. The increase in the bank's assets is carried out by conducting active operations: issuing loans, investment operations and other active operations that contribute to making a profit. In turn, active Bank operations- these are the actions of the bank, through which they place the resources at their disposal in order to obtain the necessary income and ensure their liquidity. Thus, if assets are the directions for placing funds, then active operations are the bank's actions to allocate resources, so we will analyze assets, but not active operations.

The structure of assets is understood as the ratio of assets of a credit institution's balance sheet, different in quality and economic content, to the balance sheet total.

The composition of assets by the main types of banking activities, the following conclusions can be drawn regarding their structure: 1) the first place in the active operations of credit institutions is credit operations, second - investments in securities, third - cash assets; 2) the share of other assets is due to accounting features, they include a wide range of transactions from investments in fixed assets (buildings and structures) to settlement transactions; 3) differences in the structure of assets of credit institutions are largely determined by national characteristics, including the specifics banking legislation and accounting, as well as the influence of the external environment.

The active operations of banks consist in the placement of their own and borrowed funds accumulated by banks in order to ensure the necessary conditions for:

1) The functioning of a credit institution.

2) Receiving income.

The bank's balance sheet asset allows you to track the distribution of the bank's resources by types of operations. The bank's assets are quite diverse, but conditionally they can be grouped as follows:

1) Cash and cash equivalents (1-3%).

2) Loans (50-80%).

3) Securities (debt, equity).

4) Investments.

5) Other assets.

Monetary assets are traditional for the bank. However, their share is, as a rule, not great and for a bank is about 1% to 3% of all assets. It should be borne in mind that at any time the bank must fulfill the client's requirements - to pay him in whole or in part the funds on the demand accounts.

Funds equated to cash. Such assets are funds invested in currency values, precious metals placed in the form of balances on correspondent accounts and other banks.

Loan investments constitute the main share of banking assets. They may include interbank loans (deposits), loans to legal entities, individuals, individual entrepreneurs, credit transactions with bills of exchange, provided financial leasing, factoring, guarantees executed by the bank, not collected from customers. This group of assets provides banks with the bulk of income, but at the same time bears the greatest risks.

Commercial bank assets are items balance sheet, reflecting the placement and use of resources of a commercial bank. Bank assets are formed, as a rule, as a result of active operations, i.e. placement of own and borrowed funds in order to generate income, maintain liquidity and ensure the functioning of the bank. It is as a result of active operations that the bank receives the bulk of its income.

In the balance sheets of commercial banks, the following aggregated items of assets are distinguished:

1. Cash and accounts with the Central Bank.

2. Government debt obligations.

3. Funds in credit institutions.

4. Net investment in securities for resale (securities for resale at book value net of provisions for impairment of securities).

5. Net loan and equivalent debt (loan and equivalent debt less reserves for possible loan losses).

6. Interest accrued (including overdue).

7. Leased funds.

8. Fixed assets and intangible assets, household materials, low-value and wearing items.

9. Net long-term investments in securities and shares.

10. Deferred expenses on other transactions.

11. Other assets.

The structure of assets is understood as the ratio of items of assets of the bank's balance sheet, different in quality, to the balance sheet currency. Bank assets can be classified according to the following criteria:

* by appointment,

* by liquidity,

* according to the degree of risk,

* by terms of placement,

* by subjects.

Grouping assets by their purpose

Assets can be divided into five categories by their purpose:

1) cash assets that ensure the liquidity of the bank;

2) working (current) assets that bring the bank current income;

3) investment assets intended to generate income in the future and to achieve other strategic goals;

4) capitalized (non-current) assets intended to provide economic activity jar;

5) other assets.

Cash assets. A commercial bank, along with other functions, must fulfill the requirements of customers for non-cash transfers of funds and for withdrawing cash from their accounts on a daily basis without interruption. Such funds are called highly liquid, or cash, assets. Practice shows that the share of highly liquid assets should account for about 20% of the total amount of funds attracted by the bank.

Cash assets (cash and cash equivalents) include:

* funds at the bank's cash desks, at exchange offices, at ATMs, payment documents in foreign currency

* precious metals

* gems

* correspondent account with the Central Bank

* correspondent accounts in commercial banks;

* funds transferred to the fund of required reserves in the Central Bank

* funds in the settlement centers of the organized securities market

The structure of investment assets in accordance with the Chart of Accounts of accounting can be represented as follows:

* promissory notes purchased for investment

* shares purchased for investment;

* bills with maturity over one year;

* direct investments: participation in subsidiaries and affiliates, funds contributed by banks to authorized capital legal entities.

Capitalized assets. To organize and carry out their main activities, banks have to acquire or lease various property: premises, vehicles, computers, office equipment, bank safes and equipment, etc. These funds do not participate in the turnover, and therefore they are called non-current assets... Along with some other balance sheet items, capitalized assets refer to immobilized, or abstract, assets.

Unlike industrial enterprises, fixed assets and property occupy an insignificant share in the structure of assets of a commercial bank (10-15%). Their higher share, as a rule, indicates an irrational structure of assets of a commercial bank and is associated with low level its profitability and liquidity. It is also important that the amount of capitalized assets is fully covered own capital jar.

Capitalized assets include:

Fixed assets of banks;

Capital investments;

Intangible assets;

Household materials;

Other assets. Other assets usually include funds diverted into calculations, accounts receivable, settlements with branches, transit accounts, funds mistakenly transferred to bank accounts, deferred expenses, etc. The share of other assets, as a rule, is insignificant and can range from 0 to 10% of the total assets. Too high a share of other assets may indicate negative trends in the bank's activities or distortions in its financial statements.

Grouping assets by liquidity

According to the degree of liquidity, bank assets can be divided into five groups: banking infrastructure liquidity asset

1) highly liquid assets that are in immediate readiness, or first-class liquid assets:

cash,

precious metals,

funds in the Central Bank of the Russian Federation,

funds in non-resident banks from among the group of developed countries,

funds in banks for payments with plastic cards,

bonds of the Bank of Russia,

funds provided to third parties on demand;

2) liquid assets at the disposal of the bank, which can be converted into cash (reserves of the second priority, or current assets):

loans and payments to the bank with a maturity of up to 30 days,

easily traded securities quoted on the exchange,

other quickly realizable values;

3) assets of long-term liquidity:

loans issued by the bank,

placed deposits, including in precious metals, with a remaining maturity of over a year;

4) low-liquid assets:

long-term investments,

capitalized assets,

arrears,

unquoted securities,

bad debts.

5) illiquid assets

bad loans

illiquid and depreciated securities;

accounts receivable for more than 30 days;

funds on correspondent accounts with bankrupt banks

investments in the capital of enterprises in crisis condition;

non-marketable real estate;

According to the requirements of the Central Bank, the share of the first two groups of assets must be at least 20% of all assets minus the required reserves of the credit institution. In modern conditions, for many banks this share exceeds the established minimum. As already mentioned, banks are experiencing the problem of excess liquidity, not having a sufficient number of reliable directions for profitable placement of funds.

By international requirements the share of highly liquid assets in the total volume of assets should be from 12 to 15%. The liquidity of a bank is assessed mainly by correlating groups of assets of varying degrees of liquidity with the corresponding groups of liabilities.

Grouping of assets according to the degree of risk

To assess the degree of risks assumed by the bank, all assets of the bank are divided into five risk groups, for each of which its own coefficient of probability of loss of value is established. This grouping and the procedure for calculating the amount of risk-weighted bank assets are established by the Central Bank.

Having grouped the assets according to the given methodology, it is possible to calculate the specific weights of each group and assess the structure of the bank's assets by the degree of risk. The sum of all risk-weighted assets is used to calculate the capital adequacy ratio.

Grouping of assets by maturity

Based on the current Chart of Accounts for accounting in credit institutions, all assets, depending on the term of their placement, can be divided into the following groups:

a) perpetual assets;

b) assets placed for a period:

* on demand,

* up to 30 days,

* from 31 to 90 days,

* from 91 to 180 days,

* from 181 to 360 days,

* from 1 to 3 years old,

* over 3 years.

Grouping assets by entity

Depending on whose use the bank's assets are located, they can, in accordance with the current Chart of Accounts, be classified as follows:

1) assets in use by the bank itself;

2) assets provided for temporary use to other entities:

a) the state:

* Ministry of Finance, financial, local authorities authorities;

* extrabudgetary funds;

* state-owned financial institutions;

* commercial enterprises and state-owned organizations;

* non-profit enterprises and organizations owned by the state;

b) non-state legal entities:

* financial institutions;

* commercial enterprises and organizations;

* non-profit enterprises and organizations;

c) individuals:

* private entrepreneurs;

* citizens;

d) non-residents:

* to foreign countries;

* banks and financial institutions;

* non-financial legal entities;

* individuals.

Banking supervision and its types.

By the Banking Regulatory Authority and Banking Supervision Authority in accordance with the Law "On National Bank Kyrgyz Republic "is Kyrgyz Banks. The Bank of Kyrgyzstan constantly supervises compliance by credit institutions and banking groups with the banking legislation and regulations of the Bank of Kyrgyzstan, the mandatory standards established by them. The banking system is an object of supervision for the Bank of Kyrgyzstan. Supervision is a means of enforcing prudential regulation. This is supervision in the narrow sense of the word, that is, supervision of individual credit institutions as part of the banking system.

Each separately credit organization is the subject of specific supervision by the Central Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic. Strengthening supervision of a specific credit institution may be dictated by the general interests of strengthening the banking system, in particular, management systemic risks... However, there is a downside to this: a credit institution is losing its advantages in the system of competitive relations. Information that a particular credit institution is subject to intense supervision may raise doubts among its clients.

The type of banking supervision is a specific activity of the Bank of Kyrgyzstan to check the activities of a credit institution, conditioned by the object and subject of banking supervision.

Banking supervision can be classified according to several criteria.

1. General classification of banking supervision. Depending on the subject of supervision, functional types of supervision should be distinguished, and depending on the subject - institutional.

2. Subject classification of banking supervision (functional). Banking supervision is classified according to the specifics of the regulatory, economic and financial content of banking, which is the subject of supervision.

3. Regulatory classification of banking supervision. There are two types: general (legal) and prudential (financial).

4. Depending on the development of the banking activity of the credit institution, it is necessary to distinguish between the types of banking supervision:

banking licensing;

ongoing supervision of compliance with laws, financial standards and regulations of the Bank of Kyrgyzstan.

5. Depending on the economic and financial content of banking activities, a distinction is made between foreign exchange supervision and supervision associated with the servicing of budget accounts by banks.

6. Depending on the location of the supervision, current control is divided into two types: remote and contact.

Off-site supervision is the observation of the activities of credit institutions on the basis of the banking and, in particular, accounting documents submitted by it.

Contact supervision is an audit of the activities of credit institutions carried out by representatives of the Bank of Kyrgyzstan directly at the credit institution. For these purposes, special subdivisions are created in the structure of the Bank of Kyrgyzstan - the Department for Inspection of Credit Institutions and the corresponding structures in its territorial offices.

Contract account loan.

A contract loan is a loan in working capital when a bank client regularly needs to finance a gap in the circulation of current assets. All payments are made from it, including:

Payment of settlement documents for goods and materials and services;

Payment of wages

Repayment of accounts payable for goods and materials and services

Transfer of profit and turnover tax to the budget

Payment of fines and penalties

Payment of% goods for a loan

Compared to other types of lending, a contract loan has the following features:

Before the conclusion of the agreement, an analysis of the borrower's creditworthiness is carried out according to the methodology in force in this bank. Subsequently, during the term of the agreement, it is possible to repeatedly receive a loan without providing the borrower with documentation on his financial position;

The maximum amount of debt is set for each client on a differentiated basis. When lending to legal entities, the bank studies the planned and actual movement of working capital, the state of account balances and its turnover, sources own funds... The current account receivable limit is usually defined as the difference between the average need for working capital and funds generated from their own sources. In some cases, when a long-term credit relationship already existed between the bank and the borrower before the conclusion of the agreement on this current account lending, the average debt on previously issued loans can be taken as the limit of the debt on the current account, the value of which approximately reflects the client's need for borrowed money Oh;

The presence of additional risks associated with the bank's obligations to provide a loan at the first request of the client, which makes it necessary to reserve funds for this; as well as with the determined reliability of the current control over changes in the creditworthiness of the bank's client in the process of implementing the agreement;

Establishing the maximum permissible maturity date for the current account debt. The contract, which can be concluded for rather long periods, fixes the maturity of the loan and thereby fixes its short-term nature. Indeed, the delay in the loan repayment process increases the risk on the part of the bank. Sometimes the problem of encouraging the borrower to repay the loan is resolved by introducing a progressive scale of interest rates set depending on the duration of use of the loan. In this case, the term for repayment of the debt is not stipulated in the contract;

Lack of material security for the return of the current loan. This is typical mainly for foreign banking practice. In the Kyrgyz Republic, in conditions of increased credit risk, such forms of collateral as securities, including shares of the creditor bank, the borrower's property, guarantees and guarantees of third parties, are used.

There are two types of interest on current account transactions: the first is set if funds are available on the client's current (current) account, based on similar rates existing in the bank; the second is charged on the daily outstanding balance in accordance with the calculated interest rate for the current account, which is usually higher, taking into account the risk, than for ordinary bank loans of similar duration;

Debt repayment is carried out automatically, since all receipts of funds to the client are sent to the credit offset, which are reflected on the corresponding credit account until the balance on it is liquidated. All subsequent receipts of funds will be recorded on the settlement (current) account of the client.

The loan agreement (for the provision of long-term loans) specifies the following.

At the beginning of the contract, the parties to the contract are indicated, their authorized representatives and the grounds confirming their authority. Then the content of the contract is divided into sections.

1. The Subject of the Agreement.

The subject of the agreement is the provision of a loan. It is indicated that the bank undertakes to provide the borrower with a loan in the amount of rubles. The borrower undertakes to accept the loan amount and pay interest. The interest rate is indicated. The purpose of the loan is indicated. Method of transferring funds.

2. Term of the contract.

It is indicated for how long the loan is provided.

3. The rights and obligations of the bank:

the bank has the right:

* check the security of the issued loan and the intended use of the loan;

* stop issuing loans and present for collection previously issued in case of violation by borrowers of the terms of the loan agreement, as well as in case of unreliability of reporting, repeated delays in the payment of interest on a loan;

bank responsibilities:

* provide a loan to the borrower in the amount and within the time frame stipulated in the agreement;

* monthly, before the date, to accrue interest on the loan provided;

* inform the borrower about changes in regulatory documents on lending and settlements made by decision of the Central Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic, government bodies.

4. The rights and obligations of the borrower follow from the current legislation and the situation on the credit market.

The agreement may provide for the rights of the borrower:

* contact the bank to amend the terms of the agreement, back them up with justifications and calculations;

* early repay the debt on the loan;

* terminate the agreement if the bank does not comply with its terms or for economic reasons;

borrowers undertake under the contract:

* use the loan for the purposes stipulated in the contract;

* repay the loan received from your current account in the amount and terms specified in the agreement;

* pay interest for using the loan;

* the amount of interest is indicated in the contract;

* timely submit to the bank the balance sheet of the enterprise and other documents necessary for monitoring the loan.

The borrower may demand from the bank and provide in the contract for compensation for losses arising from the provision of an incomplete loan provided for under the contract. At the same time, the borrower himself, in case of incomplete use of the loan issued to him by the bank, pays a forfeit in the amount of the bank's payment for attracted credit resources and the lost margin in the reporting period.

5. Loan security.

6. Action force majeure indicates that neither of the parties is liable to the other in connection with circumstances that have arisen against the will and wishes of the parties and which cannot be avoided (declared war, epidemic, blockade, earthquake, fires, floods).

Confirmation of such circumstances is a certificate issued by the chamber of commerce or government agency.

7. Procedure for resolving disputes.

It is indicated that disputes are resolved through negotiations between the parties. If it is impossible to resolve the differences through negotiations, they are subject to consideration in court.

8. Procedure for amendments and additions to the contract.

Drawn up in writing.

9. Special conditions (at the discretion of the parties).

The following may be envisaged:

* interest rates for using a long-term loan may be revised depending on market conditions, inflation;

* if the borrower has temporary financial difficulties, the bank can provide a deferral of the outstanding loan payment for a specific period (up to 12 months).

V " Special conditions"may be provided for:

* provision of documents to the bank (balances, feasibility study, feasibility study, expert opinion on the project, etc.);

* do not act as a guarantor for the obligations of third parties, do not transfer assets as collateral, etc.

The term of the agreement is established from the day the loan is issued and until its full return.

Signatures of authorized parties.

The concept and forms of securing the repayment of a loan

The repayment of a loan, which is a fundamental property of credit relations that distinguishes them from other types economic relations, in practice, finds its expression in a certain mechanism. This mechanism is based, on the one hand, on the economic processes underlying the return movement of the loan, on the other, on the legal relationship between the lender and the borrower arising from their place in the credit transaction.

The economic basis for the repayment of the loan is the circulation and turnover of funds of the participants in the reproduction process, as well as the laws of the functioning of the loan

Since both entities - the lender and the borrower - are involved in a credit transaction, the mechanism for organizing the loan repayment takes into account the place of each of them in the implementation of this process. The lender, providing a loan, acts as an organizer credit process protecting their interests. Based on objective economic basis, he chooses such a sphere of investment of borrowed funds, such quantitative parameters of the loan, the methods of its repayment, the conditions of the credit transaction, which would create the prerequisites for the timely and full return of the loaned value. However, the reverse movement of this value depends on the creditworthiness of the borrower who uses it in his turnover, on the general economic situation in the money market.

Direct and indirect currency quotation.

a) Straight lines. Used in most countries. For direct quotation, unit cost foreign currency expressed in the national currency;

b) Indirect. The unit is the national currency unit, the rate of which is expressed in a certain amount of foreign currency. Indirect quotation is used in the UK, and since 1987 in the USA.

There is an inversely proportional relationship between direct and indirect quotes: 1 / DIRECT RATE = INDIRECT RATE

On the board of exchange rates large bank in any country, dollar rates are induced against other currencies, i.e. direct quotation is presented.

For the British pound sterling, historically, an indirect quotation is stored, therefore the GBP line in this table is read as follows: 1 pound sterling = 1,… dollar.

c) Cross-rate. Represents the ratio between two currencies in relation to a third currency.

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What is the banking system?

Let's first study the essence of the terms under consideration. The banking system is understood as the aggregate financial institutions- banks and other credit organizations operating in the jurisdiction of a particular state. The relevant elements of banking systems are usually classified into 3 main categories:

national banks;
commercial credit institutions of the federal level;
local financial centers (opened in regions, municipalities).

It can be noted that in most modern states, including Russia, 1 national bank has been established. In our country, the corresponding function is performed by the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. In turn, there can be a lot of commercial credit institutions in the state. But what is the essence of both types of financial organizations, as well as the specifics of the functioning of these elements of the banking system? Let us examine this question in more detail.

What is a National Bank?

Let's look at who is in charge of the country's gold and foreign exchange fund. The National Bank, or Central Bank, is the key organ of the financial system in the economies of most countries in the world.

Its functions are mainly regulatory. They are most often related:

with the issue of national currency;
with the implementation of credit policy;
with the provision of settlements initiated by various subjects of financial legal relations;
with the implementation of supervision over the activities of non-state credit structures;
with carrying out refinancing on issued loans;
with the order of the state.

The noted functions of the Central Bank characterize the activities of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. It can be noted that the main Russian bank- state, but characterized by a fairly high degree of independence from other federal structures.

There are mainly private central banks. These financial institutions include the US Federal Reserve. The capital of this institution is formed by contributions from commercial banks. Let's consider the specifics of this type of financial institutions in more detail.

What is a commercial bank?

Along with the Central Bank, another key element of the banking system is a commercial bank, legally independent from the country's authorities (but at the same time, the state can participate in the ownership of the assets of the corresponding credit and financial institution). One way or another, the bank must be independent in making decisions on capital management.

The respective type of institution provides different Financial services... Commercial bank - element credit and banking system, which the:

provides loans to citizens, organizations, budgetary structures, sometimes other banks;
refinances loans;
carries out various transactions, for example, on payments from some individuals and legal entities to others, transfers to the budget system in the form of taxes and fees;
gives opportunities for placing deposits;
promotes investment in various assets.

The Central Bank, as we noted above, performs a function related to exercising control over the activities of commercial financial structures. Thus, the activities of the latter are sufficiently strictly regulated. As a rule, the start of a commercial bank is possible only with a license issued by the Central Bank, as well as subject to successful checks by the main financial institution of the state.

Let us now study in more detail what is the characteristic of the elements of the banking system that we have considered. First of all, it is useful to pay attention to their functions in relation to the Russian economy.

Functions of elements of the banking system in the Russian Federation

Russia has all the main elements of banking systems: the Central Bank, federal-scale commercial credit institutions, as well as local financial structures. The main organization, which has the largest range of powers, is the Central Bank of the Russian Federation. We have outlined its main functions. These include the implementation of the emission policy, the economy, the regulation of financial legal relations, the establishment of legal norms and standards for the activities of private credit organizations.

The next key structural elements of the Russian banking system are federal private credit and financial structures. These include the largest brands such as Sberbank, VTB, Rosselkhozbank. Their functions are to make key decisions in the banking sector of the Russian Federation, associated, first of all, with lending and servicing the largest enterprises, institutions budgetary system, international projects.

The largest federal brands may have regional offices that operate in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and municipalities. In addition, the regions may have their own credit and financial institutions that are not subordinate to federal structures. These organizations perform local functions. A regional bank, whether it is a representative office of a federal brand or an organization created at the level of a constituent entity or a municipality, solves the problems associated, in turn, with lending and servicing enterprises and individuals that operate in the respective region.

It can be noted that in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the activities of the divisions of the Central Bank are also carried out. They mainly solve problems associated with servicing financial transactions of private banks, monitor the activities of local financial organizations.

The principles of functioning of the banking system

Having considered the essence and elements of the banking system, we can explore the basic principles of its functioning. Experts determine a specific list of them. So, there are principles:

legal;
institutional;
functional.

Let's study their features in more detail.

Legal principles of banking systems

The basic principles of the corresponding type include:

standardization financial transactions;
ensuring the secrecy of deposits and transactions;
protection of deposits and payments.

The standardization of operations carried out by banks is based on the normative regulation of the activities of credit and financial institutions. Its main subject is, as we already know, the country's national bank. It develops the standards and rules according to which federal and regional private entities must conduct operations.

Ensuring the secrecy of deposits and financial transactions is the most important principle thanks to which the institutions of the financial system function. The client should have the right to ensure the confidentiality of information about himself, as well as about his deposits and other transactions, for example, formed in the process of servicing a corporate current account.

The principle is established at the level of official legal norms. In this case, we are talking about sources of law that have supreme legal force. In Russia, these are federal laws... So, the principle in question is enshrined in the Federal Law No. 395-1, adopted on 02.12.1990. The jurisdiction of this law includes not only the considered elements of banking systems, but also other entities operating in the financial sector. For example, the Deposit Insurance Agency, various audit structures.

Another important legal principle for the functioning of the banking system is the protection of deposits and payments of clients of credit and financial institutions. A person or organization using the services provided, for example, by one or another regional bank, must be sure that their funds in the form of a deposit or payment will be protected from unauthorized access. The way in which banks are required to ensure that their activities meet this criterion is also regulated by federal law.

In addition, the central bank of the state may issue regulations in addition to federal sources, monitor the activities of credit institutions in terms of ensuring the safety of deposits and transactions. This aspect of the functioning of banks is among the most significant competitive advantages on the market. The client will prefer to contact exactly the credit institution that can ensure the safety of financial transactions.

The main method of ensuring the protection of deposits and payments in banks is customer identification. There are a large number of technologies through which it can be carried out. Because of active development online transactions to this aspect of the relationship between customers and banks, the national bank of the state can devote Special attention both from the point of view of monitoring the activities of private financial structures, and in the aspect of regulating the work of the relevant organizations.

Institutional principles of banking systems

The next group of principles for the functioning of banking systems is institutional. These include:

a two-tier organization of management of the state's credit and financial system;
centralization of management of the country's banking institutions.

The first principle is enshrined, like many others, which ensure the functioning of the Russian financial system, at the level of federal legislation. It assumes the classification of banks in the Russian Federation into 2 levels: regulatory and functional.

The first institutional level of the financial system houses the Central Bank and subordinate regional structures. Its task, as we have already found out above, is to carry out normative regulation of the activities of other credit institutions operating in the country. The latter, in turn, are located on the second level. In practice, they implement the basic functions typical for banks: lending and servicing the population and enterprises. Actually, we also actually considered this aspect above, indicating how the elements of banking systems can be classified.

It should be noted that the Central Bank of the Russian Federation also solves important functional tasks. True, their essence in many cases is quite far from those that characterize the activities of credit institutions at the second level. Thus, the Central Bank of the Russian Federation provides loans to private banks, refinances them if necessary, registers federal and regional banks, and issues licenses to them. Commercial institutions are not involved in these types of activities. The exclusive competence of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation also includes the solution of a number of problems that are not directly related to the functioning of the banking system. Among them: regulation of inflation, emission. These competences of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation refer, in fact, to the functional principles of banking systems. Let's consider their features.

Functional principles of banking systems

Among the key principles that are discussed in relation to the banking system of Russia:

monopoly right of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation to issue cash;
the exclusivity of the lending and financial activities of organizations subordinate to the Central Bank of the Russian Federation.

Thus, due to the fact that only the Central Bank of the Russian Federation has the authority to provide the state economy with monetary funds, the legitimacy and stability of the functioning of the banking system is guaranteed. This is also facilitated by the fact that banking structures operating in Russia are exclusively engaged in activities according to their profile, work only according to those laws that regulate financial and credit operations. The functioning of banks is carried out by using the resources of a special infrastructure. Let's consider its specifics.

What is the specificity of the banking infrastructure?

Banking infrastructure is a set of legal norms adopted by the authorities of the state, social institutions that ensure the functioning of credit and financial institutions, as well as technological resources at the expense of which various financial transactions are carried out.

The first elements include legal norms governing the activities of the Central Bank and private banking organizations, administrative norms formed within the jurisdiction of individual financial institutions, local standards adopted by specific financial structures at the level of divisions, offices.

Key social institutions that ensure the operation of the banking system of the state can be represented:

authorities that manage business processes at various levels;
educational institutions and personnel services, which are responsible for the training of competent specialists in banking operations;
research and expert organizations engaged in the study and optimization of various business processes at the level of the country's banking system.

Technological resources that form the financial infrastructure can be represented by a wide range of solutions:

computers and software designed to process banking transactions;
communication lines;
fixed assets of banks - buildings, structures, vehicles.

All subjects of the financial system of the state - in fact, the authorities, the Central Bank, and private credit institutions - are interested in making the banking infrastructure effective. How stable, functional and technological it is, largely determines the level economic development countries, sustainability of partnerships established between various economic entities. The banking system is of great importance to the state. Let's study this aspect in more detail.

The significance of the banking system for the state

So, we examined the main structural elements of the banking system of the state, the specifics of the corresponding infrastructure and the activities of the main subjects of financial legal relations at various levels. What is the significance of this system for the country?

Banks represented at various levels, from the Central Bank to local credit and financial organizations, ensure the functioning of most of the economic legal relations in the state. The status of a bank has a limited number. It is received only by those organizations that meet the criteria and requirements established by law. It is assumed that the credit institution will be able to issue loans, accept deposits and ensure their protection, make payments initiated by individuals and legal entities.

The banking system is among the key elements of the country's economy. The more stable it is, the more successfully the state economy will develop. The interaction of elements of the banking system established competent authorities power, therefore, involves the participation of citizens, enterprises, budgetary structures, foreign entities.

They are carried out practically constantly in the economy. A person, paying for a purchase in a store, uses the products of the banking system - cash issued by the Central Bank, or by plastic card, which, firstly, is issued by a private financial institution that operates in accordance with the law and orders of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, and secondly, it uses an acquiring infrastructure that is managed by the same bank or partner organization. Sellers in this store pay for the delivery of goods from counterparties through a bank account, as well as make other payments through it in the form of salaries, social contributions, various taxes.

Thus, the elements of the modern banking system constantly interact with each other. Their functioning is regulated at the level of official sources of law, local sources. The elements of the credit and banking system work with the use of a special infrastructure, which is represented by a wide range of components. The state should be interested in the first to function well. This means that it is in the interests of the authorities to ensure the successful development of the necessary infrastructure components of the financial system. Of course, in this case we can talk about the involvement of private structures in this process.

Summary

So, we studied the key elements of banking systems, examined their main functions, as well as the specifics of the infrastructure that they use. The main of the relevant elements in the economies of most modern states is the Central Bank. As a rule, it is endowed with the widest range of powers to issue currency, manage inflation, and regulate the activities of another important group of elements of the banking system - commercial credit institutions. The latter also play a crucial role in the economy of the state, ensuring the conduct of various financial transactions with the participation of citizens, organizations, government agencies.

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