Industrialization - the period from 1928 to 1941 (interrupted by the war), during which the Soviet government implemented the plans of the first three five-year plans, which made it possible to strengthen the industry of the USSR, as well as ensure the independence of the military-industrial complex and the main elements of the economy from Western countries. The beginning of industrialization should be sought in the twenties of the last century, which led to the introduction of the NEP. The first talk about a course towards industrialization (although it was emphasized that the USSR would still remain an agrarian country for some time) occurred in 1925.

For a correct understanding of the essence of what is happening, it is necessary to single out 2 main tasks facing industrialization:

• To put the USSR on an economic and industrial level with the advanced countries of the world.
• Complete modernization of the military-industrial complex and its independence from other countries.

Preparation for industrialization (period from 1925 to 1928)

In general, the path to industrialization was opened at the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1925 and the 16th Party Conference in April 1929, which resulted in the creation of the basic principles of development. There were 2 industrialization plans on the agenda:

• "starting". Indicators with the necessary minimum.
• "optimal". Overestimated figures, on average by 20%.

We know that the Soviet government has always taken on the impossible. Therefore, they chose the "Optimal" plan, which had inflated interest. The next important event took place in April 1926. For the first time in the Bolshevik Party, the idea of ​​building socialism in the USSR, without regard to other countries, won. Let me remind you that Lenin and Trotsky were supporters of the world revolution. They believed that first it was necessary to overthrow the bourgeoisie wherever possible, and only then engage in socialism. Stalin said that the USSR is a unique product, they need to cherish and build socialism here and now. In the end, Stalin's approach won out. But I want to note that the new path fundamentally contradicted the ideology of Marxism. The important point here is that industrialization itself has become not just an economic means, but also a political one.

In the fall of 1926, the Bolsheviks put forward a new slogan (they loved this business): "Catch up and overtake the capitalist countries!" It was impossible to do this under the conditions of the NEP, which was already rotting in its liberalism and petty trade. Therefore, more and more people supported the idea of ​​​​starting industrialization in the USSR, as the only way to catch up with the countries of Europe and the USA.

In April 1929 the next party congress approved the "optimal" plan for the first five-year plan. Above, we have already talked about what kind of plan it is. The main thing in this regard is the construction of new industrial facilities (factories and plants). In total, it was planned to build 1,200 new large facilities. I must say right away that in the future this plan was revised 2 times in the direction of reducing volumes, but more on that later. The priority was given to production facilities and heavy industry. 78% of all budget revenues were allocated for the implementation of this idea.

Sources of industrialization

Industrialization required huge amounts of money. This is logical, because the construction of industry requires big money and does not give every minute returns. But the only way to save the economy of the USSR. And the leadership of the party began to seek means for creating industry by all available means:

• International trade. The Soviet government sold oil, timber, flax, gold, and grain to Europe. Grain, timber and oil were in the greatest demand. In total, they brought annually more than 2 billion rubles.
• Collectivization actively worked for industrialization. Products Agriculture was taken almost for next to nothing and transferred to the needs of industry.
• Complete abolition of private (retail and wholesale) trade. All privileges of the NEP were abolished. It happened in 1933. Let me remind you that the share of NEPmen in the retail market was 75%.
• Creation of deficits. The population was purposefully limited in everything in order to invest everything in industry as much as possible. As a result, the standard of living of people in the USSR in 1933 fell by 2 times compared to 1928!
• Ideological setting of citizens. All party organizations inspired people with a sense of patriotism and duty in order for them to work better. What actually happened.
• Special means.

What is special equipment for industrialization

What is meant by "special equipment"? In 1917, the Bolsheviks carried out a massive expropriation. Funds went to Swiss banks ( Finance center Europe), from where they could be used for the needs of the revolution in other countries. These funds were allocated to specific accounts and to specific people. They were representatives of the Leninist Guards.

During the NEP period, money was also received, and they also went to accounts in Swiss banks. There were only about 100 leaders of the Leninist Guard who had accounts in foreign banks. I repeat it was not their personal money, but it was in personal accounts. Since there is no world revolution, they lay like a dead weight. And the amounts were huge - an average of 800 million dollars (you just need to remember that the dollar then, compared with the modern one, must be multiplied by 20-25). That is, these were huge sums, and in the 1930s, Stalin received this money and, in many respects, thanks to them, industrialization in the USSR took place.

Stalin's personal intelligence went through Western banks and, bribing employees, she brought out those people who had money in their accounts. Because Stalin simply could not know this. He was not in this game by that time. This was done along other lines, for example, along the Commentary. Then the so-called Stalinist terror began, when they began to arrest representatives of the Leninist guard. At first they were given very moderate sentences. But few people know that these terms (5-7 years) were an exchange for their funds in Swiss banks. These are the very special means that have solved many problems.

At the same time, a terrible crisis was raging in the world, which went down in history as the Great Depression. Thanks to this crisis, the Soviet government managed to buy up the industrial objects that they needed literally for next to nothing. There is one more moment, which stories very rarely talk about. At the same time, the US lost the UK market and was forced to look for new ones. One of them was precisely the market of the USSR. So, part of the industrialization in the USSR was carried out with the money of American billionaires.

Progress of industrialization

Period before the start of work on the first five-year plan

In fact, by 1928, a situation had developed in which all the available resources of the USSR were thrown into the creation of industry. Stalin already then said that without industry, the USSR would be destroyed and crushed, most likely by war (surprisingly, Stalin was almost never wrong in his predictions).

Three five-year plans were allocated for industrialization. Let's consider each in detail five year plan.

First Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1928 to 1932)

Technique is everything!

The slogan of the first five-year plan

The first five-year plan was to produce up to 60 large enterprises. In total, let me remind you, it was originally planned to build 1200 objects. Then it turned out that there was no money for 1200. We allocated 50-60 objects, but then it turned out again that 50-60 objects were also very many. Ultimately, a list was drawn up of 14 industrial facilities that were to be built. But these were really large and necessary facilities: Magnitka, TurkSib, Uralmash, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, DneproGES and others, no less significant and complex. 50% of all money was spent on their construction.

In total, the following indicators were declared as optimal:

• Industrial output = +136%;
• Labor productivity = +110%.

The first 2 years of the first five-year plan showed an excess of the plan, industrialization was in full swing, as a result of which the tasks were increased by 32%, and then by another 45%! The leaders of the USSR assumed that an infinite increase in the plan would lead to ever greater labor efficiency. Somewhere this happened, but most often people began to engage in “additions”, when the indicators were given deliberately false. True, if this was revealed, then the person was instantly accused of sabotage, and best case Next came the prison.

The first five-year plan ended with the fact that the leadership of the USSR proudly reported that the plan was overfulfilled. In fact, it didn't even remotely resemble reality. For example, labor productivity increased by 5%. On the one hand, it’s not bad and there is progress, but on the other hand, it was said about 110%! But here I want to warn everyone against hasty conclusions. Despite the fact that almost all the indicators announced before the five-year plan were not met, the country made a gigantic breakthrough. The USSR received industry and an excellent base for further work and growth. And this is the most important thing. Therefore, the result of the first five-year plan of industrialization in the USSR must be assessed positively.

Second Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1933 to 1937)

Frames are everything!

The slogan of the second five-year plan

The first five-year plan laid the foundation, created a quantitative indicator. Now quality is required. And it is no coincidence that the construction projects of the first five-year plan are immediately remembered, but the construction projects of the second five-year plan are not. The point is not that construction has become worse or ambitions have disappeared, but that industrialization has moved to the next level. That is why in these years it was not enterprises that were already heard, but individuals - Stakhanov, Chkalov, Busygin and others. And this emphasis on quality paid off. If from 1928 to 1933 labor productivity increased by 5%, then from 1933 to 1938 by 65%!

Third Five-Year Plan (Implemented from 1938 to 1941)

The third five-year plan was started in 1938, but was interrupted in 1941 due to the outbreak of war.

The Third Five-Year Plan began in 1938, and the plan for it was approved at the 18th Party Congress in 1939. The main slogan of this stage in the development of the USSR was - to catch up and overtake the Western countries in terms of production per capita. It was assumed that this should be achieved without reducing the cost of the military-industrial complex. But since the war broke out in Europe literally less than a year later, spending was more focused on the military-industrial complex. The main emphasis of the third five-year plan was placed on the chemical and electrical industries. The measure of the activity of the five-year plan was that the national gross income should have doubled. This was not achieved, but the reason for this was the war. Still, the five-year plan was interrupted 2.5 years before its completion. But the main thing that the Soviet government managed to achieve was that the military-industrial complex became completely independent from other countries, and the growth of industry reached a stable + 5/6% annually. And this is a direct result of industrialization in the Soviet Union.

What did the Five-Year Plans give the country and their significance for Industrialization

Since the task was to create industrial society, then the results should be evaluated based on the response to main question. And it sounds like this - “Was the USSR or not completely industrial country? This question cannot be answered unambiguously. Yes and no, but in general - the problem was solved. I'll prove it with an example. The official figures say that in national income 70% was received from the industry! Even if we assume that these figures are overestimated (the leadership of the Central Committee of the CPSU liked to do this) and the share of industry in the national income was 50%, these are in any case colossal figures, which are far from very many of the modern powers. And the USSR passed this way in just 12 years.

I will also give some figures on the development of the USSR in the period from 1922 to 1937:

• Up to 700 factories and plants were put into operation annually (the lower figure is 600).
• By 1937, industrial growth was 2.5 times faster than in 1913.
• The volume of industry grew significantly, and according to their indicator, the USSR came out on the 2nd place in the world. Let me remind you that in 1913 the Russian Empire ranked 5th in the world in this indicator.
• The USSR became a completely independent state in terms of military and economic from other countries. Without this, it was impossible to win the war.
• Complete absence of unemployment. It is noteworthy that in 1928 it was 12%, but thanks to industrialization, everyone worked in the USSR.

The working class and its life

The main idea of ​​industrialization was to provide every person with a job and to ensure tight control over him. In principle, this was achieved, although even Stalin's rule did not have complete control over the minds of the workers.

Beginning in 1932, the USSR introduced mandatory passports for everyone. In addition, punishments for violation of discipline in the workplace were toughened. For example, if a person did not show up for work without a good reason, he would be immediately dismissed. At first glance, it seems cruel, but the fact is that the then Soviet worker is a former peasant who is used to being watched in the village, controlled and told what to do. In the city, he received freedom, after which many "blew their heads off." Therefore, it was necessary to induce social discipline. It must be said, truthfully, that even the Stalinist regime failed to achieve social discipline in Soviet society to the end.

In 1940 (this was due to the preparation for the war), the worker lost the right to move to another place of work without the permission of the administration. This decision was reversed only in 1955.

In general, the life of an ordinary person was extremely difficult. The card system was abolished in 1935. Now everything was bought for money, but the prices were, to put it mildly, high. Judge for yourself. Average monthly salary worker in 1933 was 125 rubles. Wherein:

• 1 kilogram of bread cost 4 rubles.
• 1 kilogram of meat cost 16-18 rubles.
• 1 kilogram of oil cost 40-45 rubles.

Now think about what a worker could afford in 1933? By the end of the 30s, the material situation of the workers improved somewhat, however, they still felt a number of problems.

Intelligentsia under Industrialization

As for the intelligentsia and engineers, the 1930s was certainly a period when the intelligentsia and engineers lived very well. Almost everyone had housekeepers, they receive a good salary. The authorities tried to provide conditions comparable to those of 1913 for that part of the intelligentsia that went into the service of the regime. Let me remind you that, for example, in 1913 a professor received the same salary as a minister.

Specialism and its peculiarity

Since very often the plans were not fulfilled, it was decided to introduce such a thing as pests, or people who interfere with the formation of Soviet power. In 1928-1931, the Spetsiedstvo company was launched. During this company, up to 1000 old specialists from various fields were expelled from the country. They were also accused of not understanding the tasks of socialism. And it has become one of the hallmarks of industrialization.

What is a specialty? I will explain on specific example. For example, they tell an engineer that they need 200% productivity. He says that it is impossible, the technique will not stand. The conclusion of the Soviet official is that the specialist thinks in bourgeois categories, is against socialist construction, which means that he must be expelled from the country.

In parallel with this, there was a process of creating new workers and promoting new personnel. They were called "Promoters". According to the results of the first five-year period, their number amounted to 1 million people. But by the middle of 1931, it became clear that these new cadres were one of the main brakes on industrialization. And Stalin solved this problem - he returned old specialists to their positions, gave them good salaries, and forbade the nominees to conduct negative campaigning against these specialists. So Spetsiedstvo was discontinued, and the nominees were practically over.

Economy of the USSR towards the end of industrialization

It is very interesting how administrative methods and cost accounting methods were combined. In 1934, self-financing was introduced everywhere. Everything was fine for 2 years. Then in 1936 - again strict administrative control. And so on the cycle. That is, there was a constant combination of administrative methods and cost accounting methods.

The first five-year plans did the main thing - they created industry and created new economy. Thanks to this, the USSR had a future. But this is where the main brake begins - a lot of departments and ministries. In total, 21 of them were created. The industry was divided between monopolies, and while there were few of them, the State Planning Commission managed to grind them together. However, over time it became more difficult, and the creation of the plan gradually turned into an administrative arbitrariness. And already in the 50s, the planned economy in the USSR was very, very conditional.

In any case, industrialization in the USSR was extremely important step which provided the country with an industry and a real economy that had an efficient orientation and was able to live independently of other countries.

In the context of an acute socio-economic and political crisis at the 10th Congress of the RCP (b), held on March 8-19, 1921, it was decided to abandon the policy of war communism and introduce a new economic policy in the country.
 Reason for the introduction of the NEP:
- the failure of the policy of war communism, which led to a socio-economic and political crisis;
- mass uprisings of peasants dissatisfied with the surplus and other emergency measures of power;
- speeches of workers in the cities (strike and uprisings);
- performances in the army and navy (Kronstadt uprising);
- the desire of the Bolsheviks to overcome the political crisis and maintain power.
 The main activities of the NEP:
- replacement of the surplus tax with a tax in kind;
- permission to lease land and hire labor in agriculture;
- restoration of commodity-money relations;
- permission for private entrepreneurship, transfer of small enterprises into private hands, permission for the lease of medium-sized enterprises and concessions with the participation foreign capital at large enterprises while maintaining in the hands of the state "commanding heights" in the economy;
- permission to hire labor in industry and services;
- restoration of free trade (state, cooperative, private);
- preservation of the state monopoly on foreign trade;
- strengthening financial system, stabilization of the ruble exchange rate and monetary reform;
- replacement of the ration system of remuneration for money;
- the abolition of equalization in wages - the amount of wages depended on the results of labor (the principle of war communism "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" was replaced by the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his work");
- abolition of labor service, providing enterprises with labor through labor exchanges;
- part translation state enterprises on self-financing, the creation of large state trusts;
- introduction of payment for services (utilities, transport, communications).
The introduction of the NEP made it possible to get out of the economic and social crisis, to restore by the mid-1920s. the pre-war level of production both in agriculture and in industry. But the result of the NEP was social differentiation in the city and the stratification of the peasantry. In the development of the NEP there were contradictions that led to crises:
1923 - marketing crisis,
1925 - commodity crisis,
1927–1928 - Crisis of grain procurements.
 Reasons for curtailing the NEP:
- contradictions between administrative and market methods of economic management;
- limiting the participation of private capital in the economy did not allow it to be used to solve the problem of the country's industrialization;
- the strengthening of social stratification, the emergence of NEPmen (the new bourgeoisie, exploitative elements) caused discontent among part of the population;
- dominance in society of a political attitude to the temporary nature of the NEP;
- victory in the internal political struggle of the 1920s. opponents of the NEP, who believed that the NEP was necessary only as a temporary measure to overcome the crisis and that market relations were incompatible with the socialist idea and practice.

Socialist modernization in the USSR

In the mid 1920s. a party discussion unfolds around the thesis of I. V. Stalin about the possibility of building socialism in separate country. L. D. Trotsky, who remained a supporter of the world socialist revolution, the idea of ​​which was substantiated in the works of the classics of Marxism - K. Marx and F. Engels, spoke out against Stalin's thesis. During the party discussion, the majority supported Stalin. The country's leadership proclaims a course towards the construction of socialism ("socialist reconstruction").
The plan for building socialism included three components - industrialization, the collectivization of agriculture and the cultural revolution.
Various opinions were expressed among the leaders of the CPSU (b) on the question of the pace and methods of building socialism.
N. I. Bukharin considered industrialization a priority, but he proposed to carry it out as funds were accumulated by saving public spending and increasing income, including from the development of market relations. He advocated the development of various forms of cooperation in the countryside, addressing the peasants with the slogan "Get rich!". Initially, I. V. Stalin supported Bukharin's position.
L. D. Trotsky was a supporter of accelerated (forced) industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture, which would help to obtain the funds necessary for industrialization.
JV Stalin criticized Trotsky's position in the course of the internal party struggle, but after Trotsky's expulsion, he implemented the option he proposed for building socialism in the USSR.
In 1928 it was approved first five year plan. From now on economic development USSR was carried out in accordance with state plans.
Heading for industrialization was proclaimed at the XIV Congress of the CPSU (b) in 1925. Industrialization took place under the slogan "Let's turn the USSR from a country that imports cars into a country that produces cars!".
 Industrialization Goals:
- to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country;
- ensure economic independence;
- to create a powerful heavy and defense industry;
- to create a machine-technical base for the collectivization of agriculture.
In the context of the curtailment of private entrepreneurship and the impossibility of attracting foreign loans funds for industrialization the government received by pumping resources from agriculture, borrowing from the population and reducing domestic consumption. foreign currency, necessary for the purchase of machine tools and equipment for new plants and factories under construction, was obtained by increasing the export of agricultural products. In the country itself in the first half of the 1930s. there was a rationing system - a rationed distribution of goods for the population of cities. Another source of currency was the sale of works of art from the country's museums.
 Industrialization features:
- carried out in accordance with state plans;
- was accompanied by the displacement of private entrepreneurship and the complete nationalization of the economy;
- carried out at the expense internal sources accumulation in a short historical period;
- was accompanied by the labor enthusiasm of the population (socialist competition, the movement of production leaders, the Stakhanovist movement);
- the priority was the development of heavy industry to the detriment of light industry.
 Industrialization results:
- the material and technical base of the national economy was reconstructed;
- new industries have been created;
- achieved economic independence of the country;
- The USSR has become a powerful industrial power (according to various estimates, in the late 1930s it occupied the 2nd or 3rd place in the world in terms of industrial production);
- eliminated unemployment;
- strengthened the country's defense capability;
- an administrative-command control system has developed;
- non-economic forms of coercion have become widespread.

Collectivization of agriculture

The first attempts to create collective farms (collective farms) on socialist principles in the countryside were made back in the years of war communism, but they were not widely used. During the years of the NEP, the lowest forms of cooperation (supply and marketing cooperation) developed primarily in agriculture. With the proclamation of the course towards socialist construction, the question arose of the socialist transformation of the countryside. Grain procurement crisis of 1927–1928 showed that while maintaining individual farms, the government will not be able to obtain from agriculture the funds necessary for industrialization. On November 7, 1929, I. V. Stalin published in the Pravda newspaper an article “The Year of the Great Turning Point”, in which he stated: “ Elapsed year was a great year fracture on all fronts of socialist construction. This turning point has been going on and continues to go under the sign of decisive offensive socialism on the capitalist elements of town and country... The achievement of the Party here is that we have succeeded in to turn the bulk of the peasantry in a number of areas from the old, capitalist path of development from which only a handful of wealthy capitalists benefit, and the vast majority of the peasants are forced to ruin and vegetate in poverty - to a new, socialist way of development, which ousts the wealthy capitalists, and rearms the middle peasants and the poor in a new way, equips them with new tools, equips them with tractors and agricultural machines in order to enable them to get out of poverty and kulak bondage onto the broad path of comradely, collective cultivation of the land. Carrying out complete collectivization. On December 27, 1929, in a speech at a conference of Marxist agrarians, he stated: “... from politics restrictions exploitative tendencies of the kulaks, we switched to politics liquidation kulaks as a class. On January 21, 1930, Stalin published a special article "On the question of the policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class."
 Goals of continuous collectivization:
- the creation in a short time of large collective farms to overcome the dependence of the state on individual farms in matters of grain procurement;
- liquidation of the kulaks as a class alien to socialism;
- nationalization of the private sector of agriculture;
- increase in agricultural production;
- obtaining from agriculture the funds necessary for industrialization;
- the elimination of "agrarian overpopulation", the provision of industrial enterprises with labor force due to the outflow of the population from the countryside.
Solid collectivization and dispossession were carried out by violent methods, which caused mass discontent among the peasants, which resulted in uprisings in a number of regions. Already on March 2, 1930, Stalin was forced to speak in the newspaper Pravda, in which the “Exemplary Charter” of the collective farms was published that day, with the article “Dizzy with success: on the issues of the collective farm movement”, in which he laid the blame for the violent methods of collectivization on "zealous" socialists "". The outflow of peasants from collective farms began. But after some easing of pressure on the peasants in the summer-autumn of 1930, the practice of forcibly combining individual farms into collective farms and state farms resumed.
 Results and consequences of collectivization:
- liquidation of kulaks and a layer of prosperous peasants;
- destruction of the private sector in agriculture;
- Alienation of peasants from property and land;
- elimination of economic incentives to work in agriculture;
- Creation of large mechanized farms;
- slowdown in the growth of agricultural production and constant aggravation of the food problem in the country;
— famine of 1932–1933

History of the exam, lesson 23

Lesson 23. Industrialization. Collectivization. "Cultural Revolution". Foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s–1930s.

Even though the new economic policy turned out to be, for the most part, successful, already after 1925, attempts to curtail it began.

Reasons for the curtailment of the NEP:

contradictions between administrative and market methods of economic management;

restrictions on the participation of private capital in the economy did not allow it to be used to solve the problem of industrializing the country;

the strengthening of social stratification, the emergence of NEPmen (the new bourgeoisie, exploiting elements) caused discontent among part of the population;

the dominance in society of a political attitude to the temporary nature of the NEP;

victory in the internal political struggle of the 1920s. opponents of the NEP, who believed that the NEP was necessary only as a temporary measure to overcome the crisis and that market relations were incompatible with the socialist idea and practice.

Officially, the NEP was curtailed on October 11, 1931, but in fact, already in October 1928, the implementation of the first five-year plan began, as well as collectivization in the countryside and the forced industrialization of production.

Industrialization

The need to complete the industrialization of the country was obvious. Its basis was to ensure the implementation of the plan GOELRO (state plan electrification of Russia) - adopted in 1920, designed for 10 - 15 years.

Industrialization - the transformation of large-scale industry into the main manufacturing sector of the economy (into the main branch of the economy).

December 1925 - 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks: a course towards industrialization.

Goals : elimination of backwardness, dependence on imported machinery and equipment, strengthening the defense potential.

Peculiarities:

over-industrialization (forced pace);

passed under the control of the state (five-year plans: 1928-1932, 1933-1937, 1938-1942);

priority development of heavy industry;

internal sources of financing:

income from the sale of agricultural products;

taxes from Nepmen, loans from the population;

profit from a monopoly on foreign trade;

income from light industry;

income from alcohol trade;

limiting the income of the population;

labor enthusiasm (shock work, August 1935 - the Stakhanov movement (miner Alexei Stakhanov significantly exceeded the plan), counter industrial financial plans, the movement of multi-machine workers);

the use of non-economic coercion (for example, the use of prison labor).

1926–1928 – reconstruction and re-equipment of old enterprises

1928–1937 - accelerated rates of industrialization: Dneproges, Stalingrad and Kharkov tractor plants, Moscow and Gorky automobile, Turksib, Magnitogorsk, Lipetsk, Chelyabinsk and Kuznetsk metallurgical plants, Uralmash, Moscow metro (1935), Ural-Kuznetsk metallurgical plant, Ural and Kramatorsk heavy engineering plants and many others.

Results:

The USSR took the second place in the world in terms of industrial production - built

9 thousand new large industrial enterprises;

new industries have been created (production of tractors, aircraft, automobiles, synthetic rubber);

providing the economy with the necessary raw materials and equipment;

elimination of unemployment;

creation of a powerful military-industrial complex (military-industrial complex);

creation of an isolated economy;

forced forced collectivization;

disproportions in the development of industries (low rates of development of light industry)

Collectivization

Collectivization -unification of individual peasant farms into collective ones.

December 1927 - 15th Congress of the CPSU (b): a course towards collectivization.

Goals :

the establishment of public property in the countryside;

large farms have wider opportunities for commodity production;

the transfer of funds from the countryside to the city for the needs of industrialization;

state control over the countryside.

1928 - the beginning of the forced creation of collective farms, the creation MTS(machine and tractor stations).

1929 – Year of the great break : Stalin's article is the actual beginning of "solid collectivization".

January 5, 1930 - Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the pace of collectivization and measures of state assistance to collective farm construction.

• In the North Caucasus, the Middle and Lower Volga, collectivization was to be completed in 1 year, by the spring of 1931.

  In Ukraine, the Central Black Earth region, Siberia, the Urals, Kazakhstan - for 2 years.

  In other regions of the country - for 3 years.

By March 1930 - 60% of peasant farms joined the collective farms.

The policy of eliminating the kulaks as a class was proclaimed.

1932–1933 - famine in Ukraine, the Volga region, Western Siberia, in the Kuban.

1934–1937 - completion of collectivization

• 1935 - the adoption of a new Exemplary charter of the agricultural artel.

Results:

solving the problems of the country at the expense of agriculture;

liquidation of a layer of independent prosperous peasants;

destruction of the private sector in the village;

"second edition of serfdom": 1932 - the introduction of the passport system in the USSR, until the 1960s. collective farmers did not receive passports;

abolition in 1935 of cards;

labor shortage in the countryside;

slowdown in the growth of agricultural production  loss of economic incentives for peasant labor.

cultural revolution

cultural revolution - approval of the Marxist-Leninist ideology, the formation of a socialist culture and socialist intelligentsia.

Ideology

July 1922 - April 1923 - "Philosophical steamboat": the expulsion from the USSR of 150 major scientists, mostly humanitarians, who had ideological differences with the authorities.

1925 - Union of Militant Atheists (Yemelyan Yaroslavsky).

Introduction obligatory study of ideological disciplines in educational institutions.

1922 - creation of Glavlit (Main Directorate for Literature and Publishing Houses): the main body of Soviet censorship.

Workers' clubs, libraries and reading huts are obliged to propagate the "foundations of Leninism" (since 1924)

1938 - A Short Course in the History of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was published, I. Stalin was considered its author (although his name was not mentioned).

The "short course" was actively introduced by propaganda in the USSR and was subject to mandatory study. He played an important role in popularizing the official Stalinist version of ideology and history. In it, Stalin and his entourage were presented as genuine Marxist-Leninists, the organizers of all the victories and accomplishments of the party and the state, and the party leaders, repressed by the end of the 1930s, were the original enemies of Marxism and the Soviet state and enemy agents.

Education

1919 - Decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of Russia":

• Cheka for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of educational programs;

  1923 "Down with illiteracy" - chairman: head of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR M. Kalinin;

  mid-1930 - illiteracy of the population aged 8 to 50 years was practically eliminated.

Unified Labor School (Stage I: Grades 1-4, Grades II: Grades 5-9):

• 1930 - compulsory 4-year education in the countryside and 7-year education in the city;

  mid-1930 - reform: the establishment of strict internal regulations in educational institutions, the introduction of grades, exams.

1921 - Factory Apprenticeship School (FZU).

August 1918 - new rules for admission to high school: without entrance exams and documents on secondary education; free education, benefits for the working and peasant youth.

• 1936 - introduction of entrance examinations to universities.

  1940 - the introduction of paid education in senior classes (8 - 10) and universities.

  1940 - the regulation "On the State Labor Reserves of the USSR": the right of the Council of People's Commissars to annually recruit 800 thousand - 1 million teenagers from 14 years old to study at the FZU (after finishing 7 classes) with a mandatory 4-year working off (later introduced criminal liability for leaving the school without permission).

  By the beginning of the 1940s. - more than 4.5 thousand universities operated in the USSR.

Social realism in literature and art

1920s - various directions (groups) in literature and art:

• RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers) - Serafimovich, Fadeev;

  LEF (left front) - Mayakovsky, Aseev;

  "Serapion brothers" - Zoshchenko, Kaverin, Fedin;

  Pass - Bagritsky, Malyshkin;

  AHRR (Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia), Society of Easel Artists, "4 Arts", Society of Moscow Artists.

1930s - unification and standardization of creativity of the artistic intelligentsia.

• 1934 - The Union of Soviet Writers, later other creative unions were created. The work of cultural figures who were not members of the unions was not supported and was not allowed to the reader / viewer.

  Method socialist realism - requires from the artist a truthful, historically concrete depiction of reality in its revolutionary development. At the same time, the truthfulness and historical concreteness of the artistic depiction of reality must be combined with the task of ideologically reshaping and educating the working people in the spirit of socialism.

Art was supposed to depict life in the light of the ideals of communism (socialism). It was assumed that these ideals determine not only the content of works of art, but also their form. “Literature and art of socialist realism created a new image of a positive hero - a fighter, builder, leader. Through him, the historical optimism of socialist realism is more fully revealed: the hero affirms faith in the victory of communist ideas, despite individual defeats and losses.

Censorship - Glavlit.

About 1,000 "ideologically alien" writers (Klyuev, Vasiliev, Mandelstam), thousands of artists (for example, Vs. Meyerhold) were repressed.

Demolition of many architectural monuments, especially religious ones.

Platonov ("The Pit", "Chevengur"), Zamyatin ("We"), Bulgakov ("Heart of a Dog", "White Guard", "Master and Margarita"), Gorky ("Life of Klim Samgin"), Sholokhov ("Raised virgin soil”), Ostrovsky (“How the steel was tempered”), Tolstoy (“Peter the Great”), Gaidar’s children’s books (“School”).

The film "Battleship Potemkin", "Alexander Nevsky" by Eisenstein, "Chapaev" by S. and G. Vasiliev, "Deputy of the Baltic" by Kheifits and Zarkhi, "Merry Fellows" and "Circus" by Alexandrov.

Classical music: Prokofiev, Khachaturian, Shostakovich. Dunayevsky's songs (music for the films "Spring", "Volga-Volga", "Merry Fellows", "Circus"), performances of the Alexandrov Ensemble (Red Army Song and Dance Ensemble) enjoyed wide popularity.

Artists: Brodsky ("Lenin's Speech at the Putilov Factory", "Lenin at Smolny"), Deineka ("At the Construction of New Workshops"), Petrov-Vodkin ("The Death of a Commissar"), Grekov ("Tachanka").

Sculptors: Mukhina ("Worker and Collective Farm Girl" - for the World Exhibition of 1937 in Paris, since 1939 - at VDNKh), Shadr (statues "Worker", "Sower", "Peasant", "Red Army", "Cobblestone - tool of the proletariat).

The leading trend in Soviet architecture was constructivism (1920s) and postconstructivism (1930s). Simplicity, the conformity of the forms and the internal layout of the building to its purpose, came to the fore. In the 1920s–1930s the construction of the stone building of the Mausoleum (architects Shchusev and others), the Moscow Planetarium (architects Barshch, Sinyavsky), the House of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (architect Langman), the Moscow Hotel (architects Savelyev, Stapran and Shchusev) and others were completed .

The science

1920s: Lebedev (creation of synthetic rubber), Ioffe (nuclear physics), Semyonov (chemical physics), Tsiolkovsky and Zander (cosmonautics), Vavilov (genetics), Vygotsky (psychology), Blonsky, Shatsky (pedagogy).

1930s: The role of applied sciences grew:

• creation of military equipment: aircraft (Ilyushin, Mikoyan, Polikarpov, Tupolev, Yakovlev), tanks (Kotin, Morozov), small arms (Degtyarev, Fedorov, Shpagin);

  geology, metallurgy, energy.

Schmidt - expedition to the ship "Chelyuskin": to pass the Northern Sea Route in one navigation (1933-1934). "Chelyuskin" was overwhelmed with ice, the expedition had to land for the winter. The pilots who took out the members of the expedition became the first Heroes of the Soviet Union.

The first ever non-stop flight from the USSR to the USA: Moscow - North Pole - Vancouver. It was carried out on June 18-20, 1937 on an ANT-25 aircraft consisting of: Chkalov, Baidukov and Belyakov.

The development of science was negatively influenced by ideologization, repressions, uneven development of various branches, and the formation of pseudoscience (for example, the activities of T. Lysenko in biology).

Illustrations

I. Brodsky. Speech by V. I. Lenin at a rally of workers of the Putilov factory		I. Brodsky. Lenin in Smolny
A. Deineka. At the construction site of new workshops	K. Petrov-Vodkin. Death of the Commissioner		M. Grekov. Cavalry tachanka

V. Mukhina. Worker and collective farmer I. Shadr. Cobblestone - a tool of the proletariat

Mausoleum	House of the Council of Ministers of the USSR		Moscow Hotel	"High-rise"

The foreign policy of the USSR in the 1920s - 1930s.

Breaking out of international isolation

February 1920 - a peace treaty with Estonia, March 1921 - a temporary trade agreement with England, November 1921 - an agreement on friendship and cooperation with Mongolia.

April - May 1922 - Genoa Conference :

• financial issues (debt on loans) were discussed at the conference - Soviet Russia refused to pay the debts of the tsarist and Provisional governments;

  head of the delegation - G. Chicherin;

  April 1922 - Treaty of Rapallo between the RSFSR and Germany on the restoration of diplomatic relations and the development of trade and economic ties.

1924 - year of recognition of the USSR (breakthrough of diplomatic isolation): England, Italy, China, France; later - Japan, USA (1933).

Support for the international workers' and communist movement:

1919–1943 –Comintern (Communist International);

long-distance company in support of the British miners' strike of 1926

Support for the national liberation movement:

friendship treaties with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey;

1923 - anti-British propaganda in India, Iran, Afghanistan  Curzon's ultimatum;

1924–1927 - Support for the People's Revolutionary Army of China (Blucher).

The struggle for the creation of a system of collective security in Europe

1932 - the USSR put forward the idea of ​​collective security in Europe at the Geneva Conference.

1934- admission of the USSR to the League of Nations (until December 1939).

May 1935 - agreements with France and Czechoslovakia on assistance to Czechoslovakia in case of aggression against it.

1936–1939 - assistance to the Republican government of Spain in the fight against Franco (the civil war in Spain ended with the establishment of a fascist regime).

July 29 - August 11, 1938 - armed conflict with Japan in the area of ​​​​Lake Khasan (Blucher)  the Japanese left the territory of the USSR.

April-August 1939 - Soviet-English-French negotiations in Moscow on joint actions in case of aggression (the agreement was not signed).

Military-political rapprochement with Germany

August 23, 1939 – Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and the Secret Protocol on the division of the spheres of influence of the USSR and Germany in Europe.

September 17, 1939 - the entry of the Red Army into eastern Poland  the entry of Western Belarus and Ukraine into the BSSR and the Ukrainian SSR.

September - October 1939 - signing of agreements on mutual assistance with Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia  creation of military bases for the Soviet troops and the Baltic Fleet on the territory of these states.

• transfer to the USSR of the Karelian Isthmus of the northern and western coasts of Lake Ladoga (Vyborg, Kexholm, Sortavala), lease of the Khanko Peninsula for 30 years;

  the exclusion of the USSR, as an aggressor, from the League of Nations;

June 28-30, 1940 - the return of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina by Romania at the request of the USSR  Moldavian SSR.

Historians' points of view on the Soviet-German treaty

A forced measure in the face of growing tension in Europe and the unpreparedness of the USSR to enter into a military conflict.

Stalin's desire to expand the territory of the USSR to the borders of the Russian Empire and push Hitler to war against Western states (the general goal is the implementation of the world revolution).

Map

Armed conflicts near Lake Khasan and the river. Khalkhin Gol

Problem solving

Write down the term you are talking about.

“Implemented in the USSR in the late 1920s - early 1930s. mass creation of collective farms, accompanied by the liquidation of individual farms.

Read an excerpt from D.A. Volkogonov and write the name of the leader of the USSR in question.

“Having reached the apogee of his power, he could not but understand that he owed not only to the coincidence of circumstances, the indisputability of the idea, but above all to the chosen methodology. All of it is in eternal struggle. It doesn't matter what it is: the struggle against the factionalists..., against the "cosmopolitans" and many other "fortresses" that the Bolsheviks must "take". Ultimately, for him personally, the "leader", such a struggle is his self-affirmation, perpetuation, deification.

Read the extract from the document and write the name of the policy that is being successful.

“The giants of mechanical engineering have grown up: the tractor industry, which is able to supply agriculture annually with millions of Horse power- Stalingrad and Kharkov tractor plants ... the Chelyabinsk plant of powerful caterpillar tractors that will soon be put into operation.

The mass movement of innovators of socialist production in the USSR - workers, collective farmers, engineering and technical workers - for increasing labor productivity, which began in 1935, was called the "______ movement".

The work of which of the listed cultural figures belongs to the period of the 1920s–1930s?

1) I.I. Levitan 2) V.I. Mukhina 3) G.V. Alexandrov

4) M.A. Vrubel 5) G.S. Ulanova 6) E.I. Unknown

Read an excerpt from the letter of the writer to the government of the USSR (1930) and write the name of the author of the letter.

“... The fight against censorship, whatever it may be and under whatever authority it may exist, is my writing duty ... My last features in the ruined plays "Days of the Turbins", "Running" and in the novel "The White Guard": a stubborn image of the Russian intelligentsia as the best stratum in our country."

Establish a correspondence between the types of art and the names of their representatives in the 1920s. For each position from the first column, select the corresponding position from the second and write down the selected numbers in the table under the corresponding letters.

KINDS OF ART
A) poetry B) music D) painting	1) S.M. Eisenstein 2) V.V. Mayakovsky 3) K.S. Malevich 4) S.S. Prokofiev 5) M.A. Bulgakov

Read an excerpt from the Soviet-German treaty and indicate the date of its signing.

"one. Both Contracting Parties refrain from any violence, from any aggressive action and any attack, both separately and jointly with other powers ... 6. The present treaty is concluded for ten years ... ".

Write the missing word.

international organization united the communist parties various countries, established in 1919 and dissolved in 1943, was called the Communist ____________________.

Read the excerpt from the report (1922) and write the name of the city where the international conference described in it took place.

“The first part [of the memorandum] is that we must recognize all our debts, pre-war and war… to restore private property… the enterprises should be returned to the old owners. We ... wrote a counter-memorandum, which was based on the destruction of Russia as a result of the blockade and intervention, pointed to our losses and devastation, which were brought about by the offensive of the White Guard gangs.

Which of the following events relate to 1918–1928?

1) admission of the USSR to the League of Nations

2) the conclusion of the Rapallo Treaty with Germany

3) Soviet-Finnish war

4) clash with the Japanese on the lake. Hassan

5) participation of Soviet representatives in the Genoa Conference

6) diplomatic recognition of the USSR by Great Britain and France

Read an excerpt from a historical essay and write the name of the country to which the USSR provided the described assistance.

“This assistance was of two kinds: the sending of higher commanders and commanders of a lower rank; supply of a wide variety of military equipment ...

As for military specialists, they began to arrive ... in organized groups in mid-October, having traveled in transit on foreign passports through French territory or by sea on Soviet transports ...

Until mid-October 1936, only small groups of volunteers, bomber and fighter aces, received permission to go to the republican zone on an individual basis.

Read an excerpt from the official report of the Telegraph Agency of the USSR (TASS) and write the name of the country, the war of the USSR with which caused the events described.

“The Council of the League of Nations adopted on December 14 a resolution on the ‘exclusion’ of the USSR from the League of Nations condemning the actions of the USSR… The League of Nations, by the grace of its current directors, has turned from some kind of ‘instrument of peace’, as it could be, into a real instrument… support and instigation of war in Europe.

Which three of the following documents were adopted in the 1930s?

Circle the appropriate numbers and write them down in the table.

2) resolution "On the unity of the party"

3) "Stalinist" Constitution of the USSR

4) resolution "On the implementation of the five-year plan for the development of industry"

5) the law "On the entry of Western Ukraine into the USSR"

Establish a correspondence between the years and events of the foreign policy of the USSR in the 1930s.

Which statements about this image are correct? Choose two sentences from the five offered. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table.

1) The event to which the postage stamp is dedicated is associated with one of the achievements of the Soviet navy.

2) The leader of the flight, to whom the stamp is dedicated, became famous during the Great Patriotic War.

3) Participants of the flight, to which the stamp is dedicated, spent several days at the North Pole.

4) During the flight to which the stamp is dedicated, its participants covered more than 2 thousand kilometers.

5) The event to which the postage stamp is dedicated took place in the 1930s.

Specify the image, which shows the objects built during the leadership of the country by a political figure, during which the expedition indicated on the stamp took place. In your answer, write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Practice solving tasks of the 2nd part of the exam

Tasks 20–22

From a letter from a politician

“This is the essence and basic meaning of that slogan, that course towards the industrialization of the country, which was proclaimed by the Fourteenth Party Congress and which is now being carried out.

Some comrades think that industrialization represents the development of any industry in general. There are even such eccentrics who believe that even Ivan the Terrible, who once created some germ of industry, was an industrialist. If one follows this path, then Peter the Great must be called the first industrialist. This, of course, is not true. Not all industrial development is industrialization. The center of industrialization, its basis lies in the development of heavy industry, in the development, in the end, of the production of means of production ... Industrialization has as its task not only to lead our national economy as a whole to an increase in the share of industry in it, but it also has the task in order to ensure economic independence for our country, surrounded by capitalist states, in order to protect it from becoming an appendage of world capitalism. A country of the dictatorship of the proletariat, surrounded by capitalism, cannot remain economically independent if it does not produce at home the instruments and means of production, if it gets stuck at that stage of development where it has to keep the national economy tied to the capitalist developed countries producing and exporting tools and means of production. To get stuck at this stage means to submit oneself to the subordination of world capital.

... It follows from this that the industrialization of our country cannot be limited to the development of any industry, the development of, say, light industry, although we absolutely need light industry and its development. From this it follows that industrialization must be understood first of all as the development of heavy industry in our country, and especially as the development of our own machine building, this main nerve of industry in general. Without this, there is nothing to talk about ensuring the economic independence of our country.”

20. Indicate the decade when the course referred to in this letter was proclaimed in the USSR. Specify the leader of the USSR during this period. Indicate the name of the socio-economic policy of the Bolsheviks, immediately preceding the course referred to in the letter.

21. What goals (tasks), in the opinion of the author, should be achieved as a result of the implementation of the course referred to in the letter?

22. Indicate the period for which plans for the development of the national economy were drawn up during the course referred to in this letter. List at least two industrial facilities built during this course.

Fall of the Roman Empire Thomas Cole

Social progress is directed development human society, at which there is a transition from less perfect forms to more perfect ones. And since there is no limit to perfection, so is progress. Progress affects all areas public life family, state, education. One way or another, everything changes. But it cannot be said that progress is irreversible, there is also its opposite form - regression - a decline in development, a movement backwards.

The classic example of social regression in world history would be the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. and the transition to the Middle Ages, which are also called the Dark Ages. Then, for several centuries, plumbing, Roman law, farming technologies and much more were forgotten. How dramatically they write "the barbarians grazed goats on the ruins of Rome."

But regression is rather an exception for society, basically it strives for progress. However, the progress itself is not so unambiguous: in the second part, the following question may arise:

Industrialization in the USSR led to the development of modern industry, but was accompanied by infringement of the rights of citizens. What property of social progress is illustrated by this example? Give two examples of your own that illustrate this property.

Industrialization is a process of transition from an agrarian to an industrial economy, in the USSR it took place mainly in the 1930s, simultaneously with the period of Stalin's Great Terror and mass repressions to destroy the "enemies of the people". The question indicates that the industry was developing - this is true. According to the results of the first two five-year plans, even the most pessimistic, the USSR took second place in the world (after England) in terms of industrial production. Albeit gradually, but this was accompanied by an increase in the standard of living of people, since heavy industry created the basis for the subsequent development of light industry - consumer goods. But at the same time, there were “violations of the rights of citizens” - this is how softly the authors called the mass purges under Article 58, under which more than 3.5 million people were convicted, and more than 600,000 were sentenced to capital punishment (death penalty). this can be called infringement, the authors are right.

This process illustrates duality of progress or, as they sometimes say, controversial character. This means that in some ways society is moving forward, and in some ways it is rolling back. In the case of the USSR, the price of industrialization (progress) was freedom a large number people and their lives.

Examples of the contradictory nature of progress:

1. Roman Empire VS Slavery

Oddly enough, yes. With all its progressive development, the economy of the Roman Empire was based on slave labor and a big difference between the citizens of Rome and the inhabitants of the Roman colonies - the barbarians. This later led to the fall of the first republic, and then the empire.

2. Urbanization VS rising number of heart attacks

Life in the city (and urbanization is the tendency for people to move to the city) is certainly much more comfortable than in the countryside and requires less work to maintain existence. Urbanization itself testifies to the growth in the number of industrial enterprises (the transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one, and then to a post-industrial one). However, the crowding of people living, the regular stress that a city dweller faces, traffic jams, phone calls, information flows, the inability to relax - all this puts a psychological burden on a person. All this can be continued ad infinitum. All this catastrophically increased the number of deaths from a heart attack. And yes, this is the duality of urbanization as progress.

1. NEP crises: 1923 - marketing crisis; 1925 - commodity crisis; 1927-1928 — Crisis of grain procurements.
2. Periodic exacerbation of contradictions:

— in economics: between the state, individual-peasant and private sectors of the economy; between directive-planning and market principles in the economy;

— in social relationships: between social groups due to the emergence of wealth inequality; negative attitude towards exploitative elements (NEPmen);

— in politics and ideology: between communist ideology and the realities of NEP; between an authoritarian political system and pluralism of economic relations.

1. Intra-Party Struggle for Power in the 1920s and the victory of the supporters of curtailing the NEP.
2. The dominance of the Bolshevik attitude about the temporary nature of the NEP.
3. Self-isolation of the Soviet economy and the absence of economic ties with the world community.
4. Making a decision to modernize the economy through the forced withdrawal and transfer of funds from agriculture for the needs of industrialization.

The crisis could be overcome in two ways:

- The economic plan of N. I. Bukharin, A. I. Rykov and others provided for foreign investment into the Soviet economy, the saturation of the market (at the expense of these funds) with industrial goods, the gradual launch of industries producing consumer goods (consumer goods). But the fulfillment of this plan would have dragged on for many years and made the USSR dependent on the capitalist states.

- JV Stalin and his supporters preferred the method of forcible seizure of agricultural products from the peasants, proven during the years of the civil war.

Industrialization

Prerequisites for industrialization: in 1928, the country completed the recovery period, reached the level of 1913, but the technical and economic lag behind Western countries persisted.

The need for industrialization: economic - large-scale industry determines the economic development of the country as a whole; social - without industrialization, it is impossible to develop the economy, and, consequently, social sphere: education, healthcare, recreation, social security; military-political - without industrialization it is impossible to ensure the technical and economic independence of the country and its defense power.

industrialization conditions: the consequences of the devastation have not been completely eliminated, international economic ties, there is a lack of experienced personnel, the need for machines is met by imports.

Goals: overcoming the technical and economic backwardness of the country, achieving technical and economic independence, creating a powerful heavy and defense industry, forming a machine and technical base in agriculture for collectivization, turning Russia from an agro-industrial country into an industrial power, raising the welfare of the people, demonstrating the advantages of socialism .

Sources: internal loans, pumping money out of the countryside, profits from the state monopoly on foreign trade and light industry, cheap labor, the enthusiasm of the working people, the labor of prisoners.

Methods: command and control methods, the planned nature of industrialization.

Industrialization features: high rates, short historical periods, emphasis on the development of heavy industry to the detriment of light industry, the implementation of industrialization at the expense of internal sources of accumulation.

Plans for industrialization in the USSR

A) According to the chairman of the State Planning Commission G. M. Krzhizhanovsky, industrialization in the USSR must go through four stages:

1) the development of the extractive industry and the expansion of the production of industrial crops in agriculture;

2) reconstruction of transport;

3) ensuring the correct distribution of productive forces and a general rise in the marketability of agriculture;

4) a developed power front.

Thus, industrialization, in his opinion, should cover all sectors of the economy and be designed for a long period.

B) The Supreme Economic Council, headed by the new chairman V. V. Kuibyshev, singled out the priority development of industry with an emphasis on the production of means of production.

At the XIV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in December 1925, a conclusion was drawn about the possibility of the victory of socialism in one country and a course was taken for industrialization. 1926 - the beginning of the practical implementation of industrialization. In December 1927, the XV Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks took place, at which directives were adopted for compiling five-year plan for the development of the national economy 1928-1933. The first five-year plan was approved by the 16th Party Conference in April 1929 and finally approved by the 5th Congress of Soviets of the USSR in May 1929, although its implementation officially began on October 1, 1928. According to the plan, priority was given to heavy industry. The factor international relations, world economic crisis 1929-1933, which sharply reduced the ability of our country to use the export of machinery and machine tools from abroad (it was necessary to arrange the production of the necessary equipment in our country) and increased the military threat.

In December 1929, at a congress of shock workers, Stalin put forward the slogan "a five-year plan in four years." In the summer of 1930, at the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, which went down in history as "the congress of the full-scale offensive of socialism along the entire front," the forced version of industrialization was finally consolidated.

Inconsistency in matters of economic construction has given rise to sharp negative events:

- the actual growth of the industry amounted to only 14.7%, while 32% was planned;

— growth in the cost of industrial products, their energy intensity and quality slowed down;

- the decline of the country's financial system;

- the introduction of a rationing system for the distribution of products (1929);

- population migration caused by industrialization;

- there was unemployment;

- exacerbation housing problem;

- the backlog of the communications system - the bottleneck remained rail, sea and river transport;

- disproportions: light industry was actually sacrificed to heavy industry and began to lag behind it faster and faster.

In April 1930, a decree was adopted on the expansion of labor camps, the labor of prisoners is used in construction, in draining swamps, logging and industrial facilities; in February 1931, labor books were introduced for those working in industry; according to the law of November 15, 1932, a person absent from the workplace for one day could be fired; On December 4, 1932, the Council of People's Commissars and the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks issued a decree, according to which the food supply of workers was made dependent on the observance of disciplinary norms and was placed under the control of the directorate.

Positive phenomena:

- the beginning of socialist competition, the main forms of which were shock work, counter planning, and the development of a rationalization movement; to manage inventive and rationalization activities in April 1931, a special Committee for Invention was formed under the STO of the USSR;

— the country has become a single construction site.

Results of the first five-year plan

During the years of the first five-year plan, about 1,500 important industrial facilities were built. Among them are Magnitogorsk, Stalingrad and Kharkov tractor, Moscow and Gorky automobile plants. In 1932, the last station provided by the GOELRO plan, Dneproges, was launched, the largest in the world. A rapidly developing new industry appeared in the USSR - the energy industry. Traffic was opened on the Turkestan-Siberian railway. In the East of the country, a new powerful coal and metallurgical base was created - Uralo-Kuzbass.

In 1932, the Stalinist leadership announced that the first five-year plan had been completed ahead of schedule - in 4 years and 3 months. In fact, the tasks under the first five-year plan were fulfilled by 93.7%. The main goal of the first five-year plan - to transfer the domestic economy to the rails of intensive industrial movement - was achieved. The USSR was transforming from a country importing industrial equipment into a country producing equipment.

Second five-year plan

The second five-year plan for the development of the national economy for 1933-1937. was approved at the XVII Congress of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, held in January-February 1934, called the Congress of the Winners. During the years of the second five-year plan, the course of creating new industrial bases in the East of the country was continued.

The plan assignments of the second five-year plan were more balanced, and funds allocated to light industry increased. Installations were envisaged for a significant increase in the living standards of the population. The methods of implementing the industrialization policy have changed: cost accounting, the economic independence of enterprises and the material interest of workers in increasing production and improving its quality. Behind many undertakings of those years was the head of the Supreme Council of National Economy, and then the People's Commissariat of Heavy Industry S. Ordzhonikidze.

In 1935, piecework wages were introduced in industry, construction and transport, a transition was made to a system of labor differentiation (the amount of wages was linked to working conditions, the degree of its complexity, the qualifications and length of service of workers), and a system of material incentives for labor arose.

The measures taken led to the stabilization of the economic situation and the improvement of living conditions: cards for bread, meat products, fats, sugar, and potatoes were abolished (1935); the system of card distribution of non-food products was liquidated (1936).

Instead of the slogan of the first five-year plan, "Technology decides everything," during the years of the second five-year plan, Stalin puts forward a new one: "Cadres decide everything" (since 1928, a campaign for "class purge" of the administrative and economic apparatus has been unfolding).

In the mid 1930s. the Stakhanovite movement emerges. Donetsk miner Aleksey Stakhanov initiated the introduction of a brigade labor organization at his mine, when each worker specialized in performing only a certain type of work. In order to promote it in every possible way, in 1935 the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks held an All-Union Conference of Stakhanovites. The Stakhanovite movement quickly spread throughout all branches of industry. He even found a place in the Gulag system. Stakhanov and his followers: blacksmith A. Busygin, machinist P. Krivonos, machine builder I. Gudov, textile workers Evdokia and Maria Vinogradova - become national heroes and a symbol of their time. The reverse side of the Stakhanovite movement: postscripts, in order to achieve a separate record, all resources were transferred to a narrow section, which was accompanied by a general backlog of the enterprise. In 1938 work books were introduced.

The use of the sphere of forced labor continues: the labor of prisoners was widely used in the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal, the Moscow-Volga Canal, Magnitogorsk, and other shock construction projects. Special settlers worked in forced labor (since 1934 they were called labor settlers).

Results of the second five-year plan

- Plans for the development of light industry and the growth of the welfare of the population could not be fully implemented.

- The increase in labor productivity did not occur by 63% according to the plan, but by 82%.

- Gross industrial output increased 2.2 times.

- 4,500 large enterprises have come into operation. The production of oil managed to increase approximately 1.4 times, coal - 2 times, electricity - 2.7 times, and the production of rolled products increased more than 3 times.

- One of the most important results of the second five-year plan was the success achieved in the development of the military-industrial complex of the country.

Positive shifts in the development of the domestic industrial base made it possible to abandon the export of grain in order to purchase machinery and industrial equipment. The cost of importing ferrous metals decreased. In general, the import of cars during the years of the second five-year plan decreased by more than 10 times compared to recent years the first five-year plan, and the need to import tractors and cars into the country disappeared completely. Debt on foreign loans from 6300 million rubles. in 1931 decreased to 400 million rubles. in 1936. All these indicators spoke of the country's gaining economic independence.

Creation of new industries in the USSR

During the second five-year plan (1933-1937), aircraft manufacturers had qualified personnel and relied on a powerful production base. On the Soviet aircraft created in these years, world records for flight range, altitude and speed were achieved and broken.

Tractor building

In 1925, the Scientific Research Tractor Institute - NATI was founded in Moscow as a department of NAMI, since 1946 - an independent institute for the study of tractors and their units. Mass production of tractors began after the formation in the 1920s of the People's Commissariat (Ministry) of Tractor and Agricultural Engineering.

Automotive

Production of the first Soviet cars designs by NAMI was started in 1927 at the Moscow plant "Spartak". The beginning of the development of the automotive industry in the USSR dates back to 1931-1932, when the reconstructed AMO plant (later the Moscow plant named after Stalin, then named after Likhachev) and the newly built Gorky Automobile Plant named after. Molotov. Already in 1937, the USSR in the production of cars came in fourth place in the world, and in terms of production trucks ahead of England, France and Germany, taking first place in Europe and second in the world.

Results and consequences of industrialization

1) The material and technical base of the national economy has been reconstructed.

2) New branches of industry have been created.

3) The economic independence of the country has been achieved.

4) Eliminated unemployment.

5) An administrative-command control system has developed.

6) The country's defense capability has been strengthened.

7) Stimulated extensive development economy.

8) Non-economic forms of coercion developed.

9) New industrial areas have been developed in the east of the country.

Costs of the Industrial Leap (“Great Leap Forward”):

- disharmony of social life;

- suppression of the activity of the working class, its degradation;

- violation of wages, leveling, which led to the labor passivity of workers, dependence on the bureaucratized administrative apparatus;

- strengthening of totalitarianism in the country as a result of forced industrialization;

- the emergence and deepening of disproportions in the national economy, the development of industry and the agricultural sector, cities and villages;

- declining standard of living rural population, slowdown in agricultural growth.

Collectivization of agriculture

In 1928, it was decided to carry out collectivization. Preparation for it consisted of technical assistance village (tractors), the creation of MTS, the development of cooperation, financial assistance to collective farms and state farms, the policy of limiting the kulaks. The main forms of cooperation: TOZs (partnerships for cultivating the land), artels (collective farms), communes (socialization reaches an extreme degree).

Goals of collectivization: providing industrialization with cheap labor; transfer of funds from the agricultural sector of the economy to the industrial sector for the needs of industrialization; the creation in a short time of large collective farms in order to overcome the dependence of the state on individual peasant farms in the matter of grain procurement; liquidation of the kulaks as a class.

Prerequisites for collectivization:

— Economic: low level of marketability of agricultural production; "averaging the countryside"; difficulties with grain procurements, which in 1927-1928. turn into a crisis (disruption of the grain procurement plan, introduction of cards in the cities). The grain procurement crisis created a threat of industrialization. Low purchase prices for bread push the peasants to sabotage grain procurements, and the government in response resorts to emergency measures: tax increases, strict discipline in terms of payments, confiscation, repression, dispossession.

— Political: the decision of the Soviet leadership on the insolvency of the small peasantry and the task of ensuring state control over agriculture for the uninterrupted flow of funds for industrialization.

The course towards collectivization was adopted at the XV Congress of the CPSU (b) in 1927. For government controlled By the process of collectivization and agricultural production, in accordance with the directive of the November (1929) plenum of the Central Committee, the People's Commissariat for Agriculture of the USSR was created. In the 1930s it was headed by Ya. A. Yakovlev (1929-1934), M. A. Chernov (1934-1937), R. I. Eikhe (1937-1938), I. A. Benediktov (1938-1943).

To facilitate the seizure of grain, it was decided to accelerate the pace of unification of peasants into collective farms. 1928 was declared the year of the "mass collective-farm movement". The November Plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks in 1929 proclaims the policy of "complete collectivization." Local party and Komsomol organizations were mobilized for its implementation. From the cities, 25,000 "the most conscious workers" - "twenty-five thousand people" - were sent to help them.

The creation of collective farms was carried out in violation of the principle of voluntariness and with the socialization of the means of production.

Cutting peasant protest manifested itself in the mass slaughter of livestock; numerous letters from peasants addressed to I. V. Stalin and M. I. Kalinin with complaints about the arbitrariness of the local authorities; the “flight” of peasants from the countryside (in 1932 the state was forced to “attach” them to the land, did not issue them a passport); brutal reprisals against communists and collective farm activists; peasant revolts (1929-1930 in Ukraine, Siberia, the Caucasus, Kuban and other regions of the country), for the suppression of which units of the regular army were used.

The start of forced collectivization was given on January 5, 1930 by a resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the pace of collectivization and measures of state assistance to collective farm construction”. Terms of collectivization: in the grain-growing regions—the Lower Volga, the Middle Volga, and the North Caucasus—collectivization was to be completed in the autumn of 1930 or in the spring of 1931; in the regions of Ukraine, the Central Black Earth Region, the Urals, Siberia and Kazakhstan - by 1932; in other areas - by 1933. On March 2, 1930, the newspaper Pravda published an article by I.V. Stalin "Dizziness from success", which spoke of "excesses" in the collective farm movement. However, the author blamed them entirely on the local authorities. On March 14, 1930, the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks issued a resolution “On the fight against distortions of the party line in the collective farm movement” (on the need to observe the principle of voluntariness when creating collective farms and on responsibility local authorities for "excesses"). All peasants who did not want to work on collective farms were allowed to leave them. Collective-farm activists were placed in an extremely difficult position.

The fight against the kulaks

In the summer of 1929, a decision was made to prohibit the admission of kulaks to the collective farms. On January 30, 1930, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted a resolution "On measures to eliminate kulak farms in areas of complete collectivization." It was supposed to confiscate inventory, livestock, residential and outbuildings, enterprises for the processing of agricultural products and seed stocks.

The absence of uniform criteria for the kulaks gave rise to mass arbitrariness. As a result, during the years of collectivization, more than 15% of peasant farms were dispossessed. 1.8 thousand peasants were sent to remote areas. The number of prisoners in prisons and camps grew rapidly.

The results of complete collectivization

- Decline in the level of agricultural production.

— Exacerbation of the food problem.

- Mass famine in 1932-1933. in the most grain-growing regions of the country (Ukraine, the North Caucasus, the Volga region).

- Mass migration of peasants and street children, epidemics of typhus and other infectious diseases.

- The transfer of funds from agriculture to industry, which reinforced the technical backwardness of the village.

- An increase in the fleet of agricultural machinery (in 1930 alone, the number of tractors increased from 7,102 to 50,114, but they did not belong to the collective farms, but to the MTS). Collective farms had to pay separately for the use of equipment or buy it out.

- Transferring agricultural production to a planned start, under state control. In fact, the surplus appraisal was restored.

- Alienation of the direct producer from the means of production, distribution of products of labor and management, which turned the peasant into a hired agricultural worker, not economically interested in the result and quality of his labor.

- Formation of a system of non-economic coercion (it was legally fixed in 1932-1933 by the passportization of the population, in which collective farmers did not receive passports).

- Defeat economics(the largest agricultural scientists N. D. Kondratiev and A. V. Chayanov were repressed), mass closing of churches, mockery of the religious feelings of the rural population (by the beginning of 1931, about 80% of all rural churches in the country were closed).

- From the beginning of 1931, the establishment of a form for accounting for the quantity and quality of collective farm labor - the workday as the main principle for the distribution of collective farm income.

— Formation of 4.5 thousand state farms. Their property was state property; the peasants who worked in them were state workers. Unlike collective farmers, workers received a fixed wages. In 1935, a new charter for collective farms was adopted, and the card system was abolished. In 1937, the collective farms were given certificates of perpetual ownership of the land. Collectivization was completed: 93% of peasant farms were united into collective farms.

Results and consequences of collectivization:

1) Liquidation of the stratum of prosperous peasants.

2) Destruction of the private sector in agriculture.

3) Alienation of peasants from property and land.

4) Loss of economic incentives to work in agriculture.

5) The slowdown in the growth of agricultural production and the constant aggravation of the food problem in the country.

Positive: the release of a significant part of the workforce for other areas of production, the creation of conditions for the modernization of the agricultural sector, the provision of funds for industrialization.